时间:2024-04-10 14:42:54
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前言:每个民族在发展过程中都有属于自己的经历,这些特殊的经历对人们的思维方式和行为习惯造成影响,形成不同的文化传统和语言表达方式。从对英语以及汉语分析中我们会发现,语言有相同的地方,但是在使用方法上又会有自己的习惯,这背后就隐藏着文化差异,可以说,文化造就了语言,语言又传承了文化。
一.语言与民族文化之间的联系
人类在认识世界的过程中需要使用语言这种工具,描述自己理解的这个世界需要使用语言,与别人交流自己感受的过程也需要使用语言,如果没有语言,世界的精彩就无法被描绘。在研究各国语言与文化的过程中我们不难发现,语言与文化之间是密不可分的,一个民族的语言既是自身文化的组成部分,也是文化的载体,语言中凝聚了一个民族的思维模式以及人民对这个民族的所有感情,反过来说,文化又是语言的基础,没有任何一种语言是脱离文化独立存在的,语言的产生和发展必然要以文化作为依托,文化环境促进语言的发展,同时也是制约语言发展的因素,文化习惯影响人们的表达习惯[1]。
(一)地理环境与语言文化
地理环境是造成文化差异的重要原因,也是影响语言使用习惯的重要因素。英国人民生活在群岛上,邻近大西洋与北海,这个民族在历史发展过程中离不开海,最初经济不发达时期人们主要的生活来源就是出海捕鱼,因此形成了一种海的文化,虽然如今社会经济已经发达,人们不需要再将出海捕鱼作为谋生的手段,但是有关海、水、船和鱼一类的俗语却被沿用至今。例如,在形容“害羞的人时”,他们会说“shy fish”,在形容“错过机会”时,他们会说“miss the boat”,而中国处于亚洲东部,领土中有三分之二是山地、高原和丘陵,地形处于半封闭式,人们对海有一种敬畏感,认为海就是自然的天限,因此关于海的语言都给人一种神秘莫测的感觉:例如,用“天涯海角”来形容不可触及的远方,用“大海捞针”来形容一件希望渺茫、几乎不可能做到的事。我国的土地资源丰富,农耕是人们生存的主要方式,因此在很多成语和习语中中都能够展现出“土”的文化,例如五谷丰登、根深蒂固等。即使想要表达同一个意思,二者的表达习惯也会有所差异,例如,在形容一个人花钱浪费时,英国人会说“spend money like water”,而中国人会说“挥金如土”,可见地理环境对语言文化的重要影响[2]。
(二)风俗习惯与语言文化
一个地区人们特定的生活方式被称为该地区的风俗习惯,风俗习惯与很多因素有关,是人们在漫长的岁月中积淀、形成的,包括饮食习惯和居住习惯等。面包和牛奶是英国人的主食,因此在他们的语言中包含了大量关于bread、cheese、milk的词汇,例如,在形容“大人物”时,他们会说“big cheese”,在形容好酒的时候,会说“mothers milk”,而饮食在中国文化中占据着重要位置,自古以来就有“民以食为天”的说法,中国人使用的食材是非常丰富的,“下饺子”、“生米煮成熟饭”等俗语就能够体现出我国的饮食文化。从居住上来说,英国人建造的住宅一般都是独门独户,周围用低矮的栅栏或者是篱笆围起来,因此在他们所流传使用的俗语中,有很多都是关于建筑材料和结构的,例如,表示“失言、出错”时,他们会说“drop a brick”,而中国人在居住上讲究天人合一,建筑中以对称为美,讲究精致的雕刻艺术,雕梁画栋、亭台楼阁等就是形容我国古代建筑的成语。
(三)宗教习惯与语言文化
宗教习惯与语言文化也有着密切关系,西方国家的大多数人都信仰基督教,他们认为“上帝”主宰一切,生活中的习惯用语很多都与《圣经》有关,例如,在形容“最后的时刻”时他们会说“at the eleventh hour”。而在中国,最盛行的是佛教,佛教的宗旨就是劝戒人们行善,例如,“放下屠刀、立地成佛”,就是劝人们不要再做恶事,而关于“和尚”的俗语更是数不胜数,“小和尚念经――有口无心”,是说小和尚虽然在念经,但是不明白自己在念什么,用来指做事没有“走心”[3]。
(四)历史发展与语言文化
任何一个民族传统文化的形成都与历史的变迁息息相关,文化差异在很大程度上都是由历史决定的。英国与罗马自古就有渊源,历史中英国曾被罗马人占领,占领时间长达四百年之久,因此英国很多经典俗语中都可以折射出古罗马文化,例如我们所熟知的“入乡随俗”就用“Do in Roman as the Romans do”。另外,英国历史中发生过几次重要的战争,主要是和法国、荷兰争夺权力,因此有关French以及Dutch的俗语都带有一定的贬义色彩,例如,形容“防御的虚张声势”,就用“Dutch defense”表示。而我国在数千年的历史发展中经历最多的就是改朝换代,一些家喻户晓的俗语很多都是出于历史典故或者说有名的历史人物,如果不了解这些历史,就很难理解这些成语或者俗语的意思,例如,“项庄舞剑”,就描述了著名的历史典故“鸿门宴”中的情景,另外,我国人民爱好和平,反对战争,因此有“化干戈为玉帛”这样的说法[4]。
三.从礼貌原则角度分析英汉语言文化差异
无论一个国家有怎样的传统文化,“礼貌”都是文化中重要的组成部分,只是由于文化因素的影响,每个国家的礼貌习惯或者说礼貌用语都会有所差异,人们在社交中遵循属于自己的礼貌原则,每种原则的侧重点不同,重要性也有所差别。
(一)英语礼貌用语原则
英国人在交际过程中主要讲求以下原则:首先是讲求策略,就是在交际过程中要尽量使他们受益、尽量减小他人付出的代价,同时尽量让自己吃亏,减少自己受益的可能性;其次是讲求赞扬,赞扬在英国人民的社交中占据重要位置,在与人交流的过程中要尽量发现别人的优点,哪怕是一句简单的“You look great”也会让人觉得很舒服,同时尽量少赞扬自己;第三是讲求赞同,在交际的过程中减少与别人的分歧,尽量对他人的观点表示赞同;第四是讲求同情,交际中如果发现对方有不好的情绪或者是发生了不幸的事,要表达自己的同情之感。
英国人非常注重个人隐私,初次见面时一般以“天气”作为聊天的切入点,不会问起年龄、婚姻状况等,他们认为这是不礼貌的表现。从称呼上来说,熟人之间都会直呼其名,甚至父母子女之间也是如此,他们认为这是关系亲近的表现,如果称呼“先生”、“女士”,会增强双方的距离感。很多英国人为了表示对祖辈的尊重,在给小辈取名字时,会使用与祖父或者是父亲一样的名字,在小辈名字前加上“小”字以示区别[5]。
英国人是非常喜欢被赞扬的,因此在听到别人赞美自己时,会欣然接受或者表示感谢,赞美别人时也只是单纯的赞美,不会贬低自己。从委婉用语上来说,英国人似乎更加直接一些,对于女人怀孕这件事,他们会直接表达出来,没有什么禁忌;在听演讲的过程中,如果发现有自己不赞成的观点,他们会用一句“Excuse me”来打断,然后表述自己的观点,没有人会认为这是不礼貌的行为,因为在打断之前已经说过“抱歉”了。
(二)中文礼貌用语原则
我国自古以来就是礼仪之邦,从小我们就被教导要“尊重父母、尊重师长”,分析人们在社交中的礼貌表现,我们可以将中国人的礼貌原则概括为以下几点:首先是尊人贬己的原则,在与人交流过程中往往会通过贬损自己来抬高对方,贬损自己在交际中是一种谦虚的表现;其次是文雅原则,就是在交际过程中避免使用粗俗的语言,尽量不使用使人不愉快或者是反感的字眼;最后是求同原则,这一点与英国礼貌原则有相似之处,就是在交际过程中力求和谐,即使想要表达不同意见,也要遵循“先褒后贬”的原则,这一点不仅表现在人们的日常交际中,我国在与其他国家进行外交时也强调“”[6]。
中国人看重集体利益,认为人与人之间要坦诚相待,不应该有所隐瞒,因此初次见面一般都会问到年龄、
婚姻状况等基本信息,以此为基础进行进一步交流和了解。从称呼上来说,长辈可以直呼小辈的名字,但是小辈不能直呼长辈的姓名,对于父母更是如此,如果直呼其名是非常不礼貌的表现。中国人在给小辈取名时一般都会按照族谱,遵循“某”字辈的原则,即使不按照族谱取名,也不会沿用祖辈的名字,否则会被认为“大逆不道”。
中国人在听到别人赞扬自己时,一般不会欣然接受,一般会说“哪里”,表示认为自己没有对方说的那么优秀,否则会被看做是不谦虚的表现。在与人交流时会更注重使用委婉词句,对于女人怀孕这件事一般不会直接说出来,而是用“有喜了”表示;在听演讲的过程中,如果发现演讲者与自己有不同观点,也不会立即打断,否则会被认为是一种非常不礼貌的行为,往往都是在演讲结束以后再表达自己的观点,不会直接指出对方哪里不对,而是先表示赞扬。
总结:人类数千年的文化之所以能够传承和发展,就是因为有语言这个载体,可以说没有语言就没有文化,没有文化也就没有语言的发展。要想了解一个民族的文化,就要先了解他们的语言,要想理解一门语言的含义和使用方法,就要先了解他们的文化,总而言之,二者是息息相关的,不能被分开理解。(作者单位:四川建筑职业技术学院)
参考文献:
[1]薛勤.论英汉语言文化差异与大学英语教学[D].南京师范大学,2005.
[2]何志伦,陈国红.从文化传统差异角度辨析英汉语言内涵差异[J].改革与开放,2011,10(12)18:191.
[3]梁景宏,罗红梅.礼貌原则在英汉语言文化中的差异表现[J].教育实践与研究,2005,12(14)02:55-57.
Some defects and even unsuccessful advertisements are made because of the poor quality of translation. This paper proceeds from problems in advertising translation that the translators do not have a good command of the nation-specific culture and is too adhesive to the advertisement’s superficial meaning while there are a lot of cultural factors hidden in the present advertising translation. In fact, advertisement translation requires more than just rendering sentences into another language. Translators have to convert the ideas and thoughts behind the sentences into the target language by applying the knowledge of the target culture. This paper suggests some methods to make advertising translation in view of the language and culture differences.
[Key words] advertising language; culture difference; advertising translation
【摘 要】 广告作为文化的产物,可以更直接地展示语言和文化的关系,所以广告语言是一门具有浓郁文化色彩与时代特点的艺术形式。本文对中、英广告语言进行了探讨,揭示了中英广告的语言在语音、语义、文字形式及修辞等方面的差异以及文化差异。然后,文章分析了广告语言翻译中存在的问题,从文化的角度提出了有关广告翻译的艺术的有效方法。
因为全球的经济一体化,所以广告语言涉及了大量的文化知识。既然广告语言的目的是劝导目标消费者购买其产品或服务,那么充分理解中西文化差异就成了一项举足轻重的任务。本文从六个方面进行分析,它们依次是一元论和多元论、集体主义和个人主义、含蓄和率直、形象和抽象、权威意识从众心理和自身功效自身价值、社会历史背景、审美方式等差异。
中英广告的互译中,有许多不理想的实例,有的甚至导致了销售挫折.本文分析了问题的原因,主要是在于当今广告翻译同样蕴藏着大量的文化,而译者却没有足够的文化的驾驭能力,太拘泥于原文表层。事实上,广告的翻译不是简单地把句子翻译出来。翻译人员要充分运用目标文化知识,把句子后而所承载的思想、概念尤其是文化传递给译入语的目标消费者。所以本文旨从广告语言文化差异的角度出发介绍几种英汉广告互译的方法。
【关键词】 广告语言;文化差异;广告翻译
1.Linguistic Differences Reflected in Advertisements
Shen xiaolong[1] once summarizes that western languages are rule-governed while the Chinese language is people-governed. In other word, Chinese is a language governed by meaning. Chinese is regarded as a flexible language which can be long or short in its lexical units, and is based on the language of logic phrase chunks while Western language are made up of verb central elements which are inflexible.
The following part of this paper will discuss seven aspects of linguistic differences reflected in advertisement.
1.1 Flowing chunks vs. SV structure
Jin Huikang[2] compares the Chinese and English languages in details. In view of syntax, Chinese sentences connect minor-clauses according to chronological or logical order. The structure seems short and loose. It seldom focuses on one rigid point but moves according with the logical order and the changing rhythm. Unlike the Chinese structure, English sentence displays a spatial arrangement with the verb as a center. They are clear in meaning and tight in structure. Therefore, Chinese syntactic structures usually employ parataxis, while English adopts hypostasis. In translation, we must get rid of our own way of thinking, and arrange sentences conforming to the target rules and conventions. The following examples show these intrinsic differences working in Chinese and English, and help us explore some plausible translation methods.
(1) 境内西湖如明镜,千峰凝翠,洞壑幽深,风光绮丽。
The West Lake is like a mirror, embellished all around with green hills and deep caves of enchanting beauty. [3]
Obviously, the original structure is changed in the target text. The structure of the Chinese advertisement is loose with some short clauses, whereas the English one breaks it into one sentence, which is centered on a verb, with modifiers of participle phrase, proposition phrase, and noun phrase around it. By doing so, the translation emphasizes the central meaning in the SV structure "The West Lake is like a mirror" and specifies the implied logical relationship in the surface form. Reflecting linguistic features of English language, the translation is a successful one in both content and function.
1.2 Flowery language vs. concise wording[4]
“When concerning about the rhetoric, Chinese tends to use gorgeous words while English has a vivid character of conciseness.
“Chinese is good writer to express their feelings by writing and try their best to apply grand vocabulary to describe beautiful and moving images to be sounded elegantly. Many high-sounding words can be found in Chinese. For instance, in Chinese advertisements we frequently see words like“一流”(first class),“完美”(perfect),“独特”(specific) regardless of the quality of goods being advertised. With regard to language forms, the Chinese language strives for symmetry in structure and rhyme in sound, hence reading neat, implicit and musical. For example, four-character phrases, parallelism, antithesis appears frequently in Chinese. In order to achieve rhyming, emphasis or neat structure Chinese language often resorts to tautology.
“On the contrary, western literature and art have been developing under the theory of imitating the reality. The English language reflects this theory and proves to be objective, factual and rational. It has tight sentence structure, meticulous stream of thought, and logical relationship between linguistic units, concise wording and straightforward description. All in all, brevity is the soul of wit, or in other words, a proper word in a proper place is good English. Abusing of florid language is forbidden in good English, for it is considered illogical and may harm the original meaning or communication.
“Thus Chinese and English advertisements are quite different, especially when describing scenery in tourist advertisements. It is a language for poets to give expression to special feelings instead of defining or judging. Even when describing sceneries, English displays a beauty of form, straightforward, explicit, objective, unlike the casual, subjective Chinese. For example, the following advertisement written by a native speaker of English is concise and plain, and through simile and combination of concrete scenes, it provides enough space for imagination. However, from the point of view of Chinese, it may be too plain. For example:
(2)Tiny islands are strung around the edge of the peninsula like a pearl necklace. Hunks of coral reef, coconut palms and fine white sand.
“If we translate it word by word, it will not meet Chinese readers’ expectation. So abundant modifiers such as“礁红”,“成片”,and“如银”,and four-character phrases like “玲珑小巧”,and“如诗如画”are employed to make the translated version read beautiful.
“ 座座岛屿玲珑小巧,紧密相连,像一串珍珠缀成的项链,环绕着半岛边缘。
岛上珊瑚礁红,椰树成片,沙滩如银,景色如诗如画。
“The bold characters add charm to the scenic spot and contribute to the whole rhyming structure but mean nothing to English readers because they are repetitive and wordy. The same is true that in C-E translation, those superfluous modifiers should be omitted, adapted or implicit between lines so as to make the target version conform to the westerners’ aesthetic standards.”
1.3 Speech contrast[5]
The pronunciation of the language can cause the mentally different sense of hearing result, and stir up the different reaction mentally, however it is soft or clear and crisp or strong, or dignified. In advertising language, we usually make use of onomatopoeic motivation, sound symbolism and echoism which could easily cause the target audience’s aesthetic feeling. But there exist a great difference between Chinese and western speech, onomatopoeia and rhythm. As a result, it makes translator puzzled .In English advertising words, in order to make the ad full of aesthetic feeling, they often make use of alliteration, assonance, rhyme, and consonance. For example, the advertisement phrase” Never late on Father’s Day. " There are two assonance [ei] which sound musically harmonious. However, it is quite difficult to attain this aesthetic feeling in its Chinese translation. Moreover while translating we should still notice some advertisements phrase sound may cause to lead to bad meaning in another language. For example the Japanese company of Toshiba once uses an advertisement :
(3)" 东芝(Toshiba) , 东芝(Toshiba) , 大家的东芝”.This is a advertising lyric .The first “东芝”is translated into the sound "To shi ba". Hence young people jokingly read it as“偷去吧,偷去吧,大家的东西”In this way ,there’s no solemnity at all.
1.4 Semantic contrast[5]
Language is an essential part as well as the carrier of a culture, which not only reflects its racial history and cultural background, but also includes the views, life style, and thinking method. Meanwhile, advertising language, one branch of the language, is also reflected by the culture. It is not enough for advertising translators only to know the literal meaning of an ad, for it may be endowed with extended meaning and cultural implication. Fully competent advertising translators are supposed to have a good command of religions, traditions, ethnic attitudes, the spirit of community, and purchasing habits of the target countries. Otherwise, the translated ads might go against the original intention of the producers in the following four aspects.
1) Translation conveys a derogatory sense in the target culture. For example, the Shanghai-produced pen branded as“白翎” could receive welcome in English-speaking countries, for the brand is translated as White Feather". Unfortunately, "white feather" is a symbol or mark of cowardice in English. It derives the connotation from the belief that white feather in a gamecock’s tail is a sign of a poor fighter. The English idiom, "show the white feather", means "sneak away at a critical juncture". Therefore, "white feather" is used to represent caitiffs. The translation nullifies the strengths of the company on the international market and becomes a disadvantage that fails to serve the interests of the producers or those of the distributors.
2) Translation happens to be politically inappropriate. When introduced to foreign countries, the Chinese brand of canvas shoes“大鹏”is rendered as "ROC", which is a sort of giant bird in Arabic fables. However, "ROC" happens to be the abbreviation of "Republic of China". Obviously, the translation stirs up inappropriate political associations.
3) Translation is not elegant enough. In English, "cock" usually has the implied meaning of a certain part of human body. If the brand name“金鸡” is literally translated into "Golden Cock", the translated term will annihilate the good image of the products and leave the target audience the impression of vulgarity. In fact, there is a better version for“金鸡,’-Golden Rooster.
4) Translation by using Chinese phonetic letters coincides with English words with derogatory sense. The typical example is“马戏扑克”.The version "Maxi Puke” reminds the English consumers of something revolting and unpleasant, for "maxi" means big in English and "puke" indicates vomited food or drink.
1.5 Differences between character form[5]
It is self-evident that various countries, nationalities and regions use a variety of characters. Furthermore, likes and dislikes for certain characters are widely pergent. It is reported that Japanese are in favor of such Chinese characters as“诚”、“梦”、“爱”、“愁”and “美” while most Chinese are accustomed to“福”、“寿”、“喜”and“乐”.In accordance with the American author Irving Wallace, the most beautiful English words are chime, golden, lullaby,melody and murmuring, etc. Since Chinese is a visual symbolic system with the most precise structure for recording human speech, the pictographic and associative Chinese characters are not only potential in transmitting message, but also offer great additional aesthetic function so as to arouse consumers’ positive reaction. Unlike Chinese, English is an alphabetical system of writing and can hardly produce artistic image only through its words. In consequence, it is by no means an easy job to give accurate and elegant English versions for the Chinese ads.
In case of untranslatability arising from character differences, advertising translators have to exert all strengths to seek other methods, for instance, to create a completely new ad for the same product intended for the target market. When introducing its products to China, Japanese Toyota Automobile Company ingeniously employs“车到山前必有路,有路必有丰田车”to stimulate Chinese consumers into purchases.
1.6 Rhetoric contrast[5]
English is rapidly becoming the universal language for international business. It is inevitable for Chinese producers to translate their ads into English to gain a place on the world market. Rhetoric devices are the most commonly used tools in English advertising copywriting. There do exist differences in rhetorical figures between Chinese and English, and these differences may put translators in a difficult position. For instance:
(4) 黄河冰箱,领“鲜”一步。
This ad adopts the rhetorical device of pun, which is difficult to translate. The translator can hardly render the meaning without sacrificing the form, or maintain the original flavor without distorting the meaning. The translation of rhetorical devices in Chinese ads is a knotty problem, which has blocked the way of many translators of Chinese ads. As stated in the previous part of the thesis, what should be borne in mind is that communication becomes effective abroad only after the message has been appropriately translated. Without this adequate and expressive translation, it is very unlikely to produce an impact on the foreign consumer. Therefore, the author tries to make a study of the rhetorical devices used in advertising English to pave the way for the application of English rhetoric to the translation of Chinese ads.
1.7 The influence on the advertising translation
Translation is a bilingual and bicultural activity. The translator always seeks to strike a balance between the two languages and two cultures involved in the activity. Any shift of emphasis from the source language and culture to the target counterparts or vice versa may result in the difference between literal translation and free translation, faithful translation and idiomatic translation, semantic translation and communicative translation, word-for-word translation and adaptation. As the major function of advertising is to encourage sales, i.e., to persuade the target audience to make a purchase, advertising translation, which aims at promoting sales on the overseas market, should necessarily lay its emphasis on the overseas audience, i.e., the target language readership. What should be favored in advertising translation is the message rather than the form, the sense instead of the words, the spirit and not the structure. In order to convey the original message, render the primary sense and display the right spirit, the form, words and structure of the source advertising text can be retained if possible, adapted and even converted if necessary. The translator must try, by hook or by crook, to produce the corresponding effect, or in other words, to create similar response from the target language readership.
2.Theoretical Background
Two aspects of advertising language will be discussed in this part, the one is about cultural differences and the other is concerning about the advertising translation.
2.1 Relation between language, culture and thought
According to Bernstein, language is something which both influences culture and is in turn influenced by culture, with the second influence apparently stronger than the first. According to Brown, culture is really an integral part of the interaction between language and thought. Culture patterns, customs and ways of life are expressed in language; culture-specific worldviews are reflected in language.
2.2 Culture and advertising language
Advertising language is reflective of literature, psychology and aesthetics of the cultural community. It carries marks of influence of that cultural community’s tradition in its worldviews, social values, religion and the like. For instance, American advertisements mirror Americans’ cultural psychology-quest for adventure and inpiduality. This is suggested by the linguistic preference for words like adventure, different, fearless, exhilarating, bold, new and innovative, whereas, the psychology reflected in Chinese advertisements tends to be pursuit for, say, kinship, perfection and family unification.
The culture differences reflect on the language, especially on the advertising language. Therefore, there are certain concepts which can be activates by an English word but not by its Chinese equivalent. It is quite possible that a Chinese version of an American advertisement may not trigger the intended response in the Chinese consumers, and what’s worse, it may not be understood by them.
Hence, the more a translator knows about how a cultural group view such things as humor, interpersonal relationship, life and work style, the more successfully he or she will be able to produce an effective advertisement translation.
3.Cultural Differences in Advertising Language
The faster the economy grows; the more exchange there will be. Because of the global economic market, culture differences can be reflected everywhere. The advertisement is the active constituent in the whole market, and the advertising language is full of abundant culture. So a qualified advertiser should know clear about the basic cultural differences and he or she can make a competitive advertisement, which can be well understood and arouse the sympathetic purchasing action. Thus this chapter will explain the basic cultural difference from the six aspects.
3.1 Monism versus pluralism[6]
From the aspect of culture basic form, Chinese culture has the monism viewpoint and the western culture has the pluralism viewpoint. "Nature and human are in oneness" is one of Chinese philosophy concepts in Chinese traditional culture. It insists that nature and human should be in harmony. Contrary to the Chinese culture, the western culture insists on the view of pluralism. It emphasizes on the changes and differences of the matter, self-development, and enterprising spirits.
Some Chinese advertisements meet the culture psychology of Chinese public, and create some preferable advertising words. For example:
(5)天堂水沏的龙井茶,娃哈哈矿泉水茶饮料。(Beverage)
(6)天地间造化,动静皆风云。(Car)
(7)一份好奶,一片云;
远在天边,
近在你我心间……
天生的好奶,天山雪。
(Fresh Milk)
The three advertising examples take advantage of the idea "Nature and human are in oneness", and create imagining language in the way of empathy. The means of artistic expression attract the readers’ attention and the advertisement gets its ideal effect. The advertiser takes the Wahaha beverage as the holy water from Paradise by using a metaphor. "Water from the Paradise” comes from the five-thousand-year-old Chinese culture. The myth makes the common water noble and mysterious. The consumers feel it should be out of ordinary if they buy the merchandise. The pure, the holy and the rich fragrant make the tea beverage be the essence of heaven and earth. So the products fascinate the consumers so much that arouse the people’s enthusiasm and the strong purchase desire. This advertisement gets it goal.
The English advertisements are affected by the pluralism viewpoint of western culture which prefers the inpidual freedom, self-development and the creative ability. It also encourages people to transform world and conquer the nature. These advertisements highlight the importance of person self-development, and publicize their products from point of view of personality. They show the ideas in western value system that people can change everything and people can create everything. The advertisements manifest the beliefs that people should pursuit the freedom and the self-development, and create the future. Theses expressions satisfy the consumers’ personality development and arouse the sympathetic responses.
3.2 Collectivism versus inpidualism[6]
At the value aspect, the Chinese culture worships the selfless dedication. Personal value lies in the dedication. In China’s traditional culture, philanthropism, kind and justice always is the society value in worship. To Chinese, personal happiness is in accordance with the collective benefits. Consideration, care and love have been the state of mind that the people emphasize. Therefore, Chinese people pay more attention to national affairs, family affairs, everything concerned, and giving others with very considerate and concerning care is regarded as virtue. But in the western society culture, people emphasize the character personal freedom, ego development and personal spirit of enterprise, personal benefits are beyond on the collective benefits. The different value will reflect by all means at each ad language. The examples listed below could prove:
(8) 妈妈,我又梦见了村边的小溪,梦见了
奶奶,梦见了您。妈妈,我给您捎去一样好东西。威力洗衣机,献给妈妈的爱。(威力牌洗衣机)
(9) 让妻子从繁重的家务中解脱出来,这是每个丈夫的职责.
The author of these Chinese advertisement places oneself among the consumers. We can easily found something tender and affable. Adopting the empathy of feeling, arouse the consumer’s family affection and friendship. Therefore, the ad read very human. Show consideration to the others, the kind and justice universal love, respect the old and love the young, the peaceful family have been the virtue that the our country publicizes in the traditional culture, But these advertisement give these traditional virtues for product, with a thick affection color took into exaggeration, making a claim that the product can be trusted and feel warm with it .On the contrary, English advertisement emphasize the personal struggle, person freedom and ego realization, encouraging character development is usually an English advertisement claim method. Such as:
(10) Lufthansa
Our personal service will appeal to your inpidual taste.
( Lufthansa Airline)
(11) For the man who makes his own rules.
Premier
From Johnnie Walker
Rare Old Scotch whisky, aged to perfection. The result of over 170 years of expertise. (Premier whisky)
3.3 The implicit way versus the direct way
In Chinese traditional culture, there is a public feeling that the words should be conservative and, implicit. Because the unsaying words are very meaningful and can achieve an ideal state. In the Chinese articles, there are some words that seem unrelated, which highlight the theme. To some extent, there are a few words about the peculiarities and the functions of the products. For examples:
(12) 自己人,不玩虚的,贵府酒。 (贵府酒)
(13) 鹤舞白沙,我心飞翔。(白沙集团)
(14)朋友情谊,贵乎至诚相处,互相支持帮助。啊,滴滴香浓,意犹未尽!
(15) JUST WHAT THE DENTIST ORDERED.
In all, Chinese nation think highly of friendship. So these means mentioned above can achieve the sympathetic effect. The advertisements get the goal. For another example:
Now there’s something more dentists ca n recommend for your gums that’s proven to help get them healthier. Crest Plus Gum Care is the only cavity of getting toothpaste that’s so effective; it’s clinically proven to help reserve the gum disease gingivitis. (Crest佳洁士牙膏)
From the advertisement above, it can be seen that the frank, candid, and efficient attitudes. The advertisers show the peculiarities and functions of the products straightforwardly. The words are very reliable and convincible. This direct expressing way of advertising complies with the western people’s style and gives good impression to the western readers.
3.4 The imagery pattern versus abstract pattern
In Chinese traditional culture, the mode of thinking is belonging to the imagery pattern most of time. To some extent, the abstract pattern is little. Chinese people often put their feelings in the concrete objects and things. When a person sees an object, he/she will think of another familiar person. This is the common sense of Chinese people. So the advertisers often show a comparably concrete scene or an analogy, in order that the readers can think of the products easily.
The thought of western people are used to be leaping and thoughtful. They prefer the abstract thinking pattern than the imagery pattern. So they often utilize the creative language, and give the readers a kind of novel ideas in order that the consumers can get a profound and favorable impression. For example:
(16) THE SMOOTHER SIDE OF SUCCESS.
(J&B wine)
(17) Minolta. The simplicity of intelligence.
(Minolta typewriter)
(18) Comfort, care, dedication.
We’ve put it all in our airline. ---Welcome to civilized aviation.
(Swiss International Air Lines)
3.5 Respect of authority versus respect of self-performance[6]
From long time ago, Chinese culture stresses on the public opinion. It insists that people should solicit comments and suggestions from other person outside his/her organization. And it also regards that the records can prove everything including the last, the present, and the future. The authority has a great power to affect the purchase of the consumers. So this is one important feature of Chinese advertisements. The advertisers often enumerate the honors and certificates and let them occupy a pivotal position, when the advertisers introduce the products to the readers. For example:
(19) 上海名牌产品、IS9001国际体系认证、“中国环保产品质量信得过重点品牌”称号。干洗机1000元起价,培训技术。
(20)中国驰名商标,中国名牌,国家免检产品,优质更超值。
But different from Chinese advertisements, English advertisements have this kind of expressing way rarely. Because they have the successful realization of self-value. So the practical consciousness appeared here and there in English advertisements.
3.6 Difference social history background. [7]
So if only the advertisers design the English advertisements by taking the consumers’ the essential interests as the base and by taking the idea of self value realization as the goal. in culture centers on the personal value, western people treat the official position as the very common thing. Western culture pays more attention on the personal value and self interests. It ad may lead to the dissimilarity in advertising translation. Such as the trademark " 白熊", should it be translated to" White Bear" or "Polar Bear"? This is something to do with the current politics. Along with the change of the international political situation," Polar Bear"( 北极熊) have already had another extra meaning, people may easy regard it as the nickname which refer to a kind of political power in the world. Therefore, "White Bear" may be more acceptable. When Japanese company Toyota firstly entered into the Chinese market, they created an advertisement slogan " Where there is a way for car there is a Toyota." this has borrowed from one of China’s colloquialism. But if publicized in the United States still remain this, it will make people puzzled. Hence they changed the advertisement language into" Not all cars are created equal" Everyone knows the history of the United States may understand that the first sentence of Declaration of Independence is" All men are created equal", By using this borrowing sentence ,Toyota make its declaration that the quality of their cars is much better than others’.
3.7 Difference of aesthetics[8]
The public aesthetics has a close tie to the advertisement translation. Aesthetic mind is a integrated cultural consciousness involving political standpoint, religious concept, life style, customs and habits...etc..
The psychology structure of Chinese citizen is known as "humanity", "practicality", " endurance”. The formation is special to aesthetic mindset, which is mainly subjected to the Confucian thought method influence of" the doctrine of the mean”. Aesthetic requires to be" astringent" and is beautifully-unified. Compared with western esthetic sense of blatant mentalism, Chinese aesthetic may come more objective.
The western aesthetics emphasizes the corpus affection and imagination intuitional beauty. This difference of aesthetics has resulted in the difference between Chinese and western advertisement culture. Chinese shows a kind of unified value to their culture, they believe in the authority, common opinion, boon rather than fact, motif, and the personality comes on top of other factors. While the westerner’s cultural psychology is complicated in the structure which is on the basis of “human root ” “recognition” and “behavior”. 4.Impact on Advertising Translation
Because the advertisement is a world-wide product, the advertising translation is worthy of being mentioned. Bad advertising translation can result in the sales failure. So this chapter introduces four ways to deal with the problems in the advertising translation.
4.1 Problems in advertising language translation
Following the economic enhancing, the economy becomes global and every nation’s products, come to the world market. Therefore, the advertisement plays a decisive role. So the quality of the advertisement translation between English and Chinese has the direct effect on the products’ sale and image in the international market. Culture differences in international marketing make the potential for a global brand advertised with global message very limited. Therefore, translating of an advertisement in one should invariably take the target culture into account. In order that effective communication may take place, consumers’ perceived meaning. The most cost-effective way to do this seems to develop a global product and communication concept and to allow for local adaptation of the message . . .
4.2 Requirements of advertising language translation
"Advertising translation is a commercial activity with predetermined purpose." [9] (P95) Some people advocate that criteria of advertisement translating are naturalness, exactness. This idea is applicable to almost all kinds of translating practices. Some people claim that advertisement translating can not follow the conventional translating paths; neither literalism nor free-ism would do [9] [10] but they do not address the problem from the same perspective; Some approach it from the angel of marketing and others. Out of the consideration of interlingual communication, all give the hint that advertisement translating is practically oriented. "The very nature and purpose of advertising determines advertising translating to be more than conventional translating. More often than not it is more of rewriting and recreating. Mr.靳涵身observes, “The work (advertising translation) is restricted so much by the product’s marketing strategies, market conditions, relevant laws and regulations, and cultural barriers in the target market countries that in practice it is more creating a new advertising text than conventional translating." Translator cannot be too language-dependent. As copywriters have the license to make creative sentences, translators of advertisements also have, and more accurately, should exercise the freedom to make creative renditions. This is not a matter of keeping up to Joneses. Neither should be, opinion be dismissed as eccentric.
Different from literary translation, which makes a point makes a point giving due respect to original text and keeping the style of the source text author, advertisement translation is function-oriented. As discussed in Function of Advertising Language, the most important thing of an advertisement is its directive or persuasive function. To put it simply, an advertisement is supposed to promote sales. Likewise, its rendition is expected to help sell the product or service in a different marketing context. Hence, the ultimate hallmark of a good rendition is how well it helps promote sales. No matter how faithful in form a translation is to its foreign counterpart, it is a failure if it dues not fulfill its sales promoting task.
4.3 Some methods of intercultural advertising translation
A good advertisement is one that elicits the intended emotion in the customer, who will in turn act in an expected manner accordingly, a good advertisement translation is one that reproduces the effect as closely as possible in the target culture and in so doing leads potential consumers to buying action. Every translator desires to be faithful to the original. to do this, he must not only communicate the same information, but also attempt to evoke the same emotional response as the original text does. In many ways, the emotional tone of a passage is the key to real communication effectiveness. The author may wish to crate a feeling of urgency, persuasiveness, and tentativeness, exuberance or despondency. It is important that this same emotion be communicated in the translation. For an effective transfer of the tone if the text, the translator must be well acquainted with both the source and receptor language and culture.
The main function of advertisement is to move the readers and to arouse the readers’ purchasing desire. So does advertisement translation. "The advertisement translation not only supplies the clear and well-understood information of product but also creates the same atmosphere and sense to the readers. So the effect of translation and the feeling of consumers are most important focuses of advertising translation. A advertising translator should be clear that he/she Is not only a translator but a writer who creates a perfect work which can achieve a good sale. Then the advertising translation will be discussed from tour aspects in the following, passages.
4.3.1 Target culture orientation in conception
Advertising language is required to he novel and original in conception. The advertiser should choose an object from an appropriate view of point according to the market strategy. Not only the conception but also the expression should be particular and the advertisement itself should set up an artistic conception, and give a kind of emotion. In all, the words should be attracting and arouse the consumers’ sympathetic response. And the advertisement translation should be according to these principals of advertisement language in order to achieve an ideal effect. Meaning lost in reproducing advertisements across language is especially big if poorly handled. Further more. if the translator does not transfer the source culture to the target culture well. he or she will not express a novel and original conception. Then how translators should retain the effect achieved through the unique linguistic features in the target text is esteemed as a particularly challenging hard nut. In an effort to approximate the effect of the original text in the target consumption market, advertisement translator frequently make up by use of different linguistic devices in the target text. And every advertising translation should obey the target cultural principles in order to make a cultural oriented advertisement which will be well accepted. For example
(21) Until the last drop…(Nestle coffee)
译文:滴滴香浓,意犹未尽…(雀巢咖啡)
(22) My Goodness! My Guinness! (Wine)
译文:此酒只应天上有! (桂尼斯酒)
(23)轻松一点,精彩无限(网站)
译文:Miracles Touch (Web-site)
4.3.2 Being compendious and widely read in the target culture
Generally speaking, the advertising language is concise and comprehensive. It has strong sense of rhythmic and rhyming. Those peculiarities can make the advertising language attracting and popular because of being well read. Then the translation from one language to another, that is to say, from one culture to another, the advertisement should be compendious and widely read. So the translation must be accord with the principles of target culture. And the translators should be familiar with the cultural differences and grasp the requirements of target culture. For example:
(24)青而不淡,浓而不艳.
译文:Xifeng wine, mellow and smooth.
(25)Only your time is more precious than this watch. ( Watch)
译文:手表诚可贵,时间价更高
(26)We care because you do (An insurance company)
译文:关心着你的心
The first advertising example is grasping the main idea and makes its language concise and easily remembered. Chinese advertising is very rhythmic and rhymed with two words“淡”and “艳”.If the translator translates the Chinese words one by one, the English version will be tedious and lose the original style. So the translator translates the pith of these Chinese words, and also achieves a good effect. The second advertisement is about a kind of watch. The Chinese version of the English advertisement makes full use of Chinese poetry which is well-known, rhythmic and well read. This rendition is an imitation of“生命诚可贵,爱情价更高”,a line written by Hungarian poet. So this Chinese version has the glamour of poetry. The third advertisement’s Chinese version is originally a line in a popular Chinese song entitled "Hand in Hand", which has been virtually spread from lips to lips. So the Chinese version has a strong artistic appeal.
4.3.3 Employment of different language deviation devices of the target language
In translating creative advertisements translators can adopt language deviation devices different from those used in the source text. Most language deviation devices in English advertisements have correspondents in the Chinese language. The replacement of one device with another one in the target language is often very rewarding. For example:
(27)Growing fast (the stock)
译文:牛气冲天
(28) The pen is mightier than the sword. The pen is a Parker.
译文:千军万马难抵大笔一挥——此笔乃派克。
(29) Out of blows, friendship grows. (Typewriter)
译文:不打不相识
The first translating example is very creative because, for one thing, it imitates the Chinese idiom“怒气冲天”,suggestive of force and power; for another thing,“牛气”means "bull market", as against "bear market", a popular term used in stock exchange, suggesting prosperity. The second English advertising language has been translated by using a metaphor, which shows that intelligence is better than power. And Parker is an ideal image of intelligence. The third advertising translation version has made full use of pun. This piece of Chinese version is also an idiom which has lost the original meaning. At the present, if the consumers use this kind of typewriter, it will help them to have better interrelationship. This kind of translation is very humorous.
4.3.4 Utilizing the effective advertisement of the target culture
There are so many famous and creative advertisements in the world. And advertising campaign itself involves a profound element of competition. To some extent, translator can utilize some of them to create a new one. This is another way to promote the sales. Those famous or successful advertising language have already had effective influence and the consumers have been very familiar with those advertisements and the products. So if the advertiser or the translator has connected their advertising language with those popular advertising languages, their advertising language will be welcome too. Then the products’ promoting work will be on the prosperous way. For instance, IBM appealed to buyers of their machines by I THINK THRERFORE IBM. The campaign is successful. IBM has made a global status. One of its competitors AMSTRAD follows it closely and tries to establish itself in the market by imitating the IBM’ slogan. It comes with I THINK MORE CAREFULLY THEREFORE I AMSTRAD. The slogan echoes the IBM slogan and at the same time hints that if the consumers choose rationally, he/she choose Amstrad. The "Don’t show me any other. But show me Black Sister" campaign of toothpaste brand Black Sister is another illustrative example Black Sister slogan in the American market cleverly imitates the English slogan of a famous glass goods manufacture, which goes,” Don’t show me the crystal. Show me Galway." The Black Sister advertising campaign might not be as successful as expected, for the establishment of a brand in the market is complex and gradual process, which advertising alone can not realize. However, it makes a good start. Its association with the Galway is very likely to arouse the interest of the American consumer. The same thing, if the translator adopts some famous advertisements which have already been welcome in the target culture because the consumers have the confidence on the products advertised expecting that the products are as good as those good ones, he or she will receive the good effect. Below are more examples of the type.
(30) Just do it. (Nike)
译文:心动不如行动
(参照的是:心动不如行动-travel agency )
(31) 带给您无限精彩((a web site)
译文:Where wonder never ceases
(参照的是:Where miracles never cease-Casio)
However, advertising is a kind of marketing practice, which is disciplined by marketing laws and regulations. Imitating without the least variations runs the risk of infringing the intellectual right. This frequently happens with the translation of brand names. Registered brand names are protected by relevant laws and regulations. Therefore, translators must be very careful not render a brand name into something exactly the same as what already exists in the target language market. Moreover, frequent imitation tends to result in triteness. It is quite possible that people know the advertisement itself without knowing what it exactly sells.
5.Conclusion
Advertising is an implicit form of persuasion. Language and cultural differences can be reflected from the advertising language. This paper has shown that language and culture differences can influence the advertisement from so many aspects. On the basis of analyzing the problems which has appeared in the advertisement translation between Chinese and English language, this paper suggests the requirements and methods of advertisement translation nowadays.
To make a good advertisement and to influence the behavior of potential customers toward a predetermined direction, the advertisers try to produce memorable and attracting works. Following the economic growing, the market becomes a global one and the competition becomes more drastic. So making clear of the features of each culture is the most urgent task to advertisers. "Do as Romans do" the advertisement should be designed according to the nation-specific culture. Only if the advertisers do so, this advertisement can achieve its goal that it can satisfy the consumers, and help the product to be well sold. Thus, as the translator, he or she should know the nation-specific culture further, grasp the pity and make full use of it.
The goal of advertising translation is to persuade target language consumers to buy a product or service. To attract and communicate to them in a way that produces this desired result, translators must acquaint themselves with target language consumer’s way of thinking, with those factors that motivate them to buy, and with the environment where they live. In this sense advertising translating is more of a marketing practice. A good advertisement translator must be a first artistic writer. He or she must first be able to know clear about the cultural difference; and then to identify the cultural constraints in a given advertisement; the last is to facilitate across-culture communication by overcoming the obstacle set by the constraints. In all, a good advertiser can do the contribution to the products’ sale.
Bibliography (References)
[1]申小龙. 文化语言学十年感言[J]. 长沙水电师院社会科学学报,1999年第4期.P15
[2]金惠康. 跨文化交际翻译[M]. 北京:中国对外翻译出版公司,2003.P11-13
[3]郭建中. 实用性文章的翻译(下)[J]. 上海:上海科技翻译, 2001年第4期.P16
[4]韦 钦. 跨文化交际中广告文化的传递及对译[J]. 广西大学, 2004.年第3期.P41-42
[5]张 娜. 国际广告的语言差异与翻译策略[J]. 安庆师范学院学报, 2005年第5期.P1-2
[6]郝钦海. 广告语言中的文化内涵[J]. 山东外语教学, 2000年第2期P18
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【基金项目】本文是基金项目(GY-S11041和GY-S10043)的研究成果之一。
【中图分类号】H319 【文献标识码】A 【文章编号】2095-3089(2013)02-0097-03
引言
文化渗透于社会生活的各个方面,文化因素如宇宙观、价值观、思维方式、社会习俗和等对语言有制约作用,而语言是文化的重要载体,语言表层结构的差异反映了不同的思维模式和言语行为。语言在人类的一切活动中起着十分重要的作用,是人类社会生活不可缺少的一个部分,因此,人们在言语交际中不仅涉及语言系统,而且涉及同语言系统紧密关联并赖以生存的文化系统。中西方文化的巨大差异直接导致中国人和西方人的思维模式和语言表达方式截然不同;中西文化差异是中国人习得英语困难的根源,因此,只有充分了解中西文化背景知识,深刻理解不同民族思维模式的差异,对比分析英汉两种语言风格和表达方式的异同,才能减少母语文化在外语学习中的负迁移作用,从而提高英语学习的效率;才能在跨文化交际中避免误会和尴尬,实现有效交际。
1.文化的内涵及中西文化差异
英国人类学家爱德华·泰勒(E.B Tylor, 1871)在他的著作《原始文化》(Primitive Culture)中给文化下定义:文化是一个复合体,包括知识、信仰、艺术、道德、法律、风俗以及人类社会里所获得的一切能力和习惯。《韦氏新国际词典》(Merriam-Webster, 2000)把文化定义为人类行为及其产品的总和,表现为思想、言论、行动及制成物品。中西方文化存在差异,其中宇宙观、价值观和思维模式的迥异是导致其他文化现象产生差异的源动力。
1.1 文化的内涵
文化有广义和狭义之分,学术界主要探讨广义的文化,上述的两种文化定义正是广义的文化内涵。从上述定义可知,文化并不是抽象的,而是人类所感知的一切,人类以自己的情感、技能和智慧创造、更新、丰富了自己的文化;不同国家、不同民族活动的多样性和观念的多元化使其文化内容和形式出现多样性。学界对文化的定义和层次分类可谓百家争鸣(胡文仲,1988;浦小君,1991;戚雨村,1992;裘克安,1993),笔者倾向于将文化的精髓归为外在文化(行为——语言、手势、习俗等;产品——文学、艺术、音乐、人工制品、建筑等)和内核文化(观念——信仰、价值观、道德观等)。张占一(1990)指出,文化可按功能分为知识文化和交际文化。知识文化是指当两种不同文化背景的人进行交际时,不直接影响准确传递信息的语言和非语言文化因素,而交际文化是指当两个文化背景不同的人进行交际时,直接影响信息准确传递(即引起偏差或误解)的语言和非语言文化因素。
1.2 东西方文化差异
文化具有共性和个性,首先,文化具有人性趋同、参透性、可融性、传承性等共性特征,文化的共性特征使跨文化交际成为可能;同时,文化也具有民族性,每个民族的文化都带有各自历史发展的痕迹。英汉民族的历史发展不同,其语言中沉积的文化内涵也不相同。文化对思维方式产生直接的影响,不同的社会文化背景形成不同的思维系统和思维模式;不同的思维模式直接造成言语行为的差异。文化的个性特征体现文化差异,造成跨文化交际中的文化休克和误解。中西方文化差异的核心内容是宇宙观相反、价值观各异以及思维方式不同。
1.2.1 宇宙观相反
西方文化呈线性,强调人与自然、凡与神均一分为二,界线分明,凸显二元的并存与对立;一分为二的线性宇宙观有利于发展科学探索自然。西方人普遍认为人类是在与天斗的过程中求生存。古希腊哲学家、数学家、物理学家阿基米德有句名言:只要给我一个稳固的立足点,我就能够移动地球(Give me but one firm spot on which to stand, and I will move the earth, Archemedes said)。阿基米德的这一豪情壮语道出西方人敢于与天斗的豪迈和勇气。
中国文化呈环性,表明人与自然、凡与神均合二为一,环抱涵容,注重二元的依存和统一;合二为一的环性宇宙观有利于发展伦理改革社会,坚持人类是在天人和谐中求生存。中国文化最古老的典籍《易经》的最基本思想就是阴阳之道,反复强调的就是阴阳并存、天人和谐之道,在中国人看来,阴阳是一个事物的两个方面,或者一个东西的两种成分,两者缺一不可。《易经》是中国传统思想文化中自然哲学与伦理实践的根源。
1.2.2 价值观各异
西方文化的主线是个体本位和权利本位。西方文化以个体主义为导向,以权利为基准,强调个人潜力的发挥、个人目的的实现以及个人利益的追求;西方线性价值观对于倡导自强自立,克服因循守旧心理,树立个人进取精神有着积极意义。由于重个体本位,西方人特别在乎个人“隐私权”;关注个人声誉,原则性强,不讲情面;凡事界线分明,彼此独立,即便是夫妻,也实行AA制。西方人信奉“人之初,性本恶”,所以他们建立健全法律制度,要求事事服从严格周密的律令,依靠强大的法律力量来维护社会秩序、保障个人权利。一句话,西方的“罪感”(guilt)文化是以法制人,关注如何限制人们学坏(林大津,2002:263-266)。
中国文化的主线是群体本位和义务本位。中国文化以集体主义为导向,以义务为基准,注重群体关系的和谐、群体目标的统率和群体利益的维护;中国环性价值观对于倡导顾全大局,克服自我中心观念,发挥群体优势,树立团队协作精神有着积极意义。由于重团体本位,中国人常把个人之事视作大家之事,比如,关心某个人的个人问题;做事爱面子,比如,朋友熟人之间借钱可以不立字据,以免伤和气;倾向戒骄戒躁,乐意贬抑自己以突出他人或团体;中国文化信奉“人之初,性本善”,重视榜样的力量,相信公众舆论能使人抑恶扬善,培养出犯规可耻的纯洁心灵。中国的“廉耻”(shame)文化是以情感人,重在教人学好(ibid)。
1.2.3 思维方式不同
西方人的思维模式呈直线型,如同直线切划,细分明析。西方人注重抽象思维,喜欢化动为静,为此,英语名词经常翻译成汉语动词;擅长逻辑思维,推崇清晰精确,有利于理论建构;注重求异(逆向)思维, 使之更具创造性。西方人的个人本位和一分为二的思维方式决定了他们的家庭观念:一个家庭由丈夫和妻子组成,夫妻意见不和就可以分开,所以西方人结婚不易,离婚容易。
中国人的思维模式呈螺旋型,犹如圆环内封,纵观合察,寻求直觉顿悟。中国人善于形象思维和情感论述;讲求模糊含蓄,有助于体察真谛;辩证思维时,注重宏观与整体,具有从众心理。中国人的人伦本位和合二为一的思维方式认为,一个家庭必须要有丈夫和妻子,夫妻两人分开了,家就不成家了,所以中国人结婚容易,离婚相对较难。
2.文化差异对英汉语言表达的影响
西方人的直线型思维催生了形合语言。线性思维和形合语言的特点使英语表达直截了当,简洁明了;篇章衔接的形合手段丰富而缜密。英语的线性特点表现为句子结构以直线枝形铺排,由主到次,递相迭加,犹如枝繁叶茂的大树;英语段落也呈直线展开,主题明了,理据罗列逻辑清楚。中国人的螺旋型思维具有立体感和间接性,环性思维造就了意合语言(汉语);汉语语言表达含蓄委婉;文章衔接以意驭形,形散意合。汉语的环性特点体现为句子结构像竹节那样,相对独立,但意义又相互关联;语段以环状波式流动,像波涛滚滚的大江。
2.1 句子结构
英语是形合语言,注重时态和词形变化,句子之间还需用连接词语进行显性连接,以理清逻辑关系。而汉语是意合语言,主要靠词序变化、上下文语境及言外事实逻辑来明晰思路。
2.1.1 句序与时序
英语借助时态及连接词语来表示动作发生的先后顺序,因而无需按照动作发生的先后顺序陈述。例如:完成了毕业论文,我就去度假。可英译为:
After I had finished my dissertation, I went on holiday.
Or:I went on holiday after I had finished my dissertation.
而汉语是按照动作或事件发生的先后顺序陈述,时间顺序与句子顺序基本上是一致的。例如:她一直在实验室做实验,所以昨天我们遇见她时,她显得很憔悴(先实验,后憔悴)。
但是其英译句子的句序却相反:She looked exhausted when we met her yesterday because she had been doing experiments in the lab.
2.1.2 句序与距离
英语在时间和空间距离描述上是由近及远,而汉语句子在时空描述上是由远而近。例如:
He had flown ④ in just the day before from Georgia where he had spent ③ his vacation basking in the Caucasian sun after the completion ② of the construction job he had been engaged in ① in the south. (他原来在南方参加①一项建筑工程,任务完成②之后,上乔治亚州/格鲁吉亚去度假③,享受高加索的阳光,前一天才坐飞机回来④。)
上述英语句子中的四个行为动作的时间顺序④③②①译成汉语变成①②③④,只有这样,中国人才觉得句子语序与事理逻辑相吻合。
又如:There is a very beautiful garden on campus. As you enter the garden through the university gate, you will find an elegant pavilion standing right in the center. At the back of the pavilion are some white stone benches. 该句子的空间描写是按照由近及远的顺序进行的。
2.1.3 句序与从小
英语叙述和说明事物时,习惯于从小到大,从特殊到一般,从个体到整体;汉语的顺序则与此相反。例如:
It happened in February about twelve years ago. (这是发生在12年前的二月份。)
Shanghai is one of the biggest cities in the world. (上海是世界上最大的城市之一。)
2.1.4 头轻与脚轻
英语句子从左到右顺线延伸,使句尾呈开放式,句首呈收缩式,显得头轻脚重;汉语句子则是从右到左逆向延伸,使句尾呈收缩式,而句首呈开放式,显得头重脚轻。例如:
He lent me the book.
He lent me the book which was borrowed from the library.
He lent me the book which was borrowed from the library that never opens on weekends.
他借给我那本书。
他借给我那本从图书馆借来的书。
他借给我那本从那个周末从不开放的图书馆借来的书。
2.1.5 急性子与慢性子
英语族人“急性子”,英语常常是从未知到已知;汉语族人“慢性子”,汉语句子则从已知到未知。例如:Where are you going? (你去哪儿?)
英语句式总是先表态后叙事,先结论后分析,先假设后前提,先果后因,与汉语的句式形成鲜明的对比。例如:I feel highly honored to be asked to make a speech here. (让我在这里做报告,我感到万分荣幸。)
2.2 语篇结构
东西方人的思维模式差异直接导致篇章结构和语言风格的迥异。英语语篇结构呈直线性,汉语的话语结构则呈螺旋性。英语的线性语言结构严谨,重形式上的连接,有利于促进逻辑思维的发展;汉语的环性语言结构自由,重意义上的隐性连贯,有利于形象思维的发展。
2.2.1 直线性和螺旋性
英语段落呈直线展开,先有主题句,后加以论证说明,最后收尾,其间不附加任何与主题没有直接联系的内容。汉语语篇的螺旋型是指作者不直接论证主题,而是从各种间接角度做好铺垫,然后慢慢进入正题,这种在主题团团转的谋篇布局风格让英语族人困惑不解。
2.2.2 形合法与意合法
英语篇章结构的展开使用形合法,而汉语的语篇展开使用意合法。英语篇章主题浅显明了,结构稳定不变;语篇呈直线展开,充分利用关联词语来说明句子内容、句子之间、乃至段落之间的逻辑关系。汉语篇章主题突出,但是结构灵活,以神统形;少用连接词语,缺乏形态变化,体现隐性连贯;语篇展开犹如环弧状的浪花,此起彼伏,似连似分,高低无序,但沿着一定的语义方向流动。
2.2.3 简洁明了与华而不实
从语言风格来看,英语文章简洁明了,偏重于“实在”信息的传送,不引经据典,也无需华丽的辞藻;而汉语文章既有“实在”信息的传递,又引用典故、习语等,从不同角度重述论点,利用形象化的语言来增加信息的情感因子。这在英语族人眼里,就显得华而不实。
3.启示
通过对比中西文化差异及其对英汉语言的影响,我们得知:英汉思维模式不同不仅导致英汉语言行为差异,而且产生英汉句子表达和篇章结构的差别。此外,不同语言中的习语和历史典故是历史文化的一个重要内容,要正确理解和诠释不同语言中的习语和历史典故,就必须对该语言所反映的历史文化有所了解。
3.1 文化差异对英语学习的启示
要学好英语,仅仅背诵英语单词和英语语法规则是远远不够的,有必要了解英语国家的文化,了解他们的思维模式和语言表达方式;通过对比英汉语思维模式和语言表达方式的差异,提高英语学习的效率。仅仅从文字表达差异是难以全面解释含义的差别的,为此,对语言文字的正确理解与表达应该立足于两种文化的对比;不了解一种语言所属的文化,难免出现让人啼笑皆非的语言表达。比如:英美人听到赞扬,回答“谢谢”,而中国人回答“哪里哪里,还差得远”,这是社会文化因素对语言使用的影响;又如:He went to Beijing by air.( 他坐飞机去北京),例句中英汉语的语序编排不同,这种约定俗成的编排是受思维模式影响的。
3.2 文化差异对跨文化交际的启示
在跨文化交流日益增多的今天,我们不仅要了解相关国家的语言,还必须了解他们的文化,做到二者同步发展。众所周知,思维方式不同足以造成跨文化交际不顺畅,乃至彻底失败,只有充分了解对方的文化、思维和语言表达方式,才能避免误会和尴尬,从而实现有效交际。不同文化背景的人对同一个词语,心里联想到的词语含义却不尽相同,所以我们不能只注意词语的字面意义,而应该研究词语的“心理意义”。比如“狗”(dog)在英美人眼里是“宠物”,所以You are a lucky dog意指“你是个幸运儿”;中国人对“狗”往往产生“恶畜”的联想,于是就有很多与狗相关的贬义词,如:走狗、哈巴狗、狗汉奸、狗急跳墙、狐朋狗友、狗嘴吐不出象牙……
3.3 文化差异对习语理解的启示
习语不仅是一种语言现象,更是一种文化产物,许多英汉习语源于历史典故,因此习语除了传递话语信息外,更重要的是传递文化。要正确理解习语的内涵,必须了解习语的文化背景,领悟习语所承载的文化内涵。例如,汉语习语“说曹操,曹操到”,曹操是中国的历史人物,英美人不知他为何人,所以必须套用意思相似的英语习语:“Talk of the devil, and he’s sure to appear.” 英语习语“A loss may turn out to be a gain.” 相当于“塞翁失马,焉知非福。”。此外,各民族所处的地理位置和生态环境不同,形成了不同的地域文化,这不仅影响语言的表达方式,而且使人们对同一事物产生不同的理解和语义联想。比如,英国是一个岛国,英国人的生活与海、水息息相关;而中国在亚洲大陆,中国人的生活离不开土地,因此,“花钱大手大脚”,英语是“spend money like water”,而汉语是“挥金如土”。
4.结语
语言是文化的组成部分,反映一个民族的文化,揭示该民族的文化内容,语言不能离开文化而存在,语言与文化相互影响、相互制约。一方面,语言是文化的基石,没有语言,就没有文化;语言作为文化的传播工具,对文化的传播有着极大的制约作用。另一方面,语言忠实地反映它所属的文化,不同的民族心理和民族文化对语言有着深刻的影响;在异族文化的传播过程中,又会出现一些新的词语和表达方式,这样,文化又影响和制约着语言。可以说,语言反映一个民族的特征,它不仅包含该民族的历史和文化背景,而且蕴藏着该民族对人生的看法、生活方式和思维方式。总之,理解语言必须了解文化,理解文化必须了解语言。
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早在1904年Jespersen曾说:“Learning about the culture is the highest purpose of language learning.”英语教学,几乎是从第一天起就开始接触中西方两种交际文化差异这个难题。语言离不开文化,文化依靠语言,英语教学是语言教学,当然离不开文化教育。
人类文化中有着许许多多共性的东西,但也不可否认,不同的民族、不同的文化之间也存在着差异,尤其是在交际文化方面,中西方之间存在着较大的差异,这给我们学习与正确使用英语带来一定的困难。由于交际文化涉及面非常广,所以在英语教学中,我们要在培养学生英语语言能力的同时,让其更多地了解中西方语言中的文化差异,否则,我们的英语教学只能是对毫无意义的语言符号的教学。本文通过阐述外语教学中文化差异对语言的主要影响,分析了加强文化意识培养的重要性。
1.文化背景的差异产生语言意义的差别
维果茨基(1978)曾提出过“文化工具盒”。他认为,孩子所获得的母语的概念和意义来源于他所属的文化。文化背景的差异造成语言意义的差别。比如说,我们把亚洲最发达的四个国家和地区称为“亚洲四小龙”,在英语中很多人会译成“four dragons of Asia”,这是由于不了解文化背景差异所造成的。在英美文化中,“龙”是一种带有迷信、宗教色彩的动物,甚至是带有消极意义的动物。虽然最近十几年里,随着改革开放的进行,中国在国际舞台上逐渐树立起自己的形象,西方社会逐渐了解了中国的“龙”文化,但是对于普通老百姓来说仍然不能接受“dragon”的这种“positive”(正面的)形象。在英语里,“亚洲四小龙”的正确说法是“four tigers of Asia”。
2.中西方文化差异影响其风俗习惯并由此产生了不同的习语
中西方文化的差异还影响到了风俗习惯,尤其是在节日和宗教方面,以及由此形成的不同习语。除中国和英语国家共同的节日(如New Year’s Day)外,双方还各有自己独特的节日,中国有Spring Festival,Dragon Boat Festival,Mid-autumn Day等;英语国家有Valentine’s Day,Easter,April Fools’ Day,Mother’s Day,Thanksgiving Day和Christmas Day等。中西方节日的风俗习惯也很不相同,在节日里,对于别人送来的礼物,中国人和英语国家的人也表现出不同的态度。中国人往往要推辞一番,接受后一般不当面打开。如果当面打开并喜形于色,就可能招致“贪财”之嫌。而在西方文化中,人们对别人送的礼品一般都要当面打开称赞一番,并且欣然道谢。
自古以来,中西方就存在着的不同,与有关的习语也大量地出现在英汉语言中。佛教传入中国已有一千多年的历史,人们相信有“佛主”在左右着人世间的一切,与此有关的习语很多,如“借花献佛”、“闲时不烧香,临时抱佛脚”等。在西方许多国家,特别是在英美国家,人们信奉基督教,由此产生了很多相关习语:God helps those who help themselves.(上帝帮助自助的人);God sends fortune to fools.(傻人有傻福);God is always on the side of the strongest battalions.(上帝总是站在实力雄厚的军队一边);Whom the gods love die young.(好人不长寿)。也有God damn you!(该死的!),Go to hell!(下地狱去!)这样的诅咒。
3.中西文化的差异导致内在感情上对同一事物的不同理解
由于中西方文化的差异,同一个事物会在我们的心里唤起相同或不同的表象,不论它表达的是什么意思,往往不同文化背景的人感受同一事物时的感觉是不一样的,同一个事物在具有不同文化意识的人的脑中所映射的表象也许是一致的,但对于其内涵意义,内在感情却是不同的。如“He is a wolf.”这个句子会使英美人理解成“他是个色狼。”,而中国人会想到“他豺狼成性。”,因为英美人所理解的“wolf”有“下流”等内涵意义,而中国人则偏重于“凶残”、“野蛮”这一类的内涵意义。英语国家的人在赞美一个事物美好时,如用“nice”则带有“女性”的特殊内涵的感彩,而用“good”则在内涵意义上是“中性”的,也就是不带文体和感彩,由于文化的不同,中国人对这两个词在内涵意义上的细微差别也许就不甚明了。
4.文化的差异产生了不同的禁忌语言
禁忌语和体态语言也属于交际文化范畴。我国电影的“金鸡奖”,先译成Golden Cock Prize,但“cock”一词除“公鸡”外,还有“雄性器官”的意思,在英语里属于禁忌语,后改译为Golden Rooster Prize。再比如,欧美人十分喜爱养狗,有狗户口、狗居室、狗罐头、狗洁身剂等。他们认为狗是人类最忠实的朋友,不会离弃,更不会背叛,在这样一个文化背景之下,英语中的dog常用来指忠实的伙伴,常以狗的形象来比喻人的行为,属于褒义词:jolly dog(快活的人),You dirty dog.(你这个坏小子,常带疼爱色彩,属褒义),to help a lame dog over a stile(助人于危难,仗义勇为),top dog(当权者),a big dog(大亨)等。形容人“累极了”用dog-tired。而中国人对狗的态度却截然相反,尽管近些年来养宠物狗的人数大大增加,狗的“地位”似乎有所改变,但狗的贬义形象却深深地留在汉语言文化中,常常带有厌恶的色彩,在汉语中属于贬义或禁忌语,如,“狗仗人势”、“狗血喷头”、“狗胆包天”、“狗急跳墙”、“狗苟蝇营”、“狗尾续貂”、“鸡鸣狗盗”等。
总之,人们常常借助于语言来表现某种文化,文化是一种“载体”,文化上的错误比语法上的错误后果更为严重,语法上的错误只要不影响表达,是可以忍受的,但是文化上的错误会给对方造成伤害,而对说话者来说也是一种损失。
【关键词】英语 汉语 文化差异
引言
语言文化差异出现在不同国家的语言应用者的交流过程中,随着全球经济的发展,国家间的经济往来越来越紧密,个体之间的跨文化语言交流活动也越来越多。在交流的过程中,由于语言文化差异带来许多误解,甚至出现过文化差异导致的沟通不良问题。这些问题的最终解决方式是弥合文化差异,使不同于语言应用者能够进行无障碍的沟通。英语是目前我国应用最多的外语,也是学校教育中最重要的外语教学科目,探讨英汉语言文化差异,对我国的英语教学锅中以及英语应用都有非常重要的价值。
一、英汉语言文化差异的表现
1.语词运用上的文化差异。中国与西方国家的政权体制、国民心理环境,文化的主流思想完全不一致,很多英语学习者和应用者,都忽视了这样的语言心理基础,因此,在理解英语表达方面出现了一些误解。常见的误解存在于单词的理解上,英语中的“dargon”并非汉语中的“龙”,具有神圣、吉祥的意思,而是代表着邪恶的力量。而英语中也不存在“吃了么?”这样的问候。很多英语学习者,在文化意义方面的误解,使语言的理解和应用都存在着问题。
2.语法上的文化差异。语言的基础包括词汇和语法,词汇量的多少并不完全决定英语使用者的交流能力,]有丰富的语法知识,仍然会造成交流障碍。而英语和汉语的语法存在着明显的不同,由于语法方面的文化差异,给英语学习者造成难题,也导致了交流当中的诸多问题。例如在汉语交际中,如果陈述完某些观点后,会以This is my point view. 表示对自己观点的总结,但是在英语语法中,已经陈述完成的就代表已经过去,因此应该用That is my point view. 加以表述。
3.语言习惯上的文化差异。只有真正地理解英语语言的表达习惯才能够促使跨文化交际中英语的作用得到充分的发挥,提升跨文化交际质量,英语国家与汉语国家的生活习惯不同,语言习惯也完全不一样。语言习惯在人们日常实用语言交流的过程中不断积累下来的,是完全建立在文化基础上的。例如在对方表达谢意后,英语语言习惯中常用 You arewelcome. 来应对对方的 Thank you. 但是在汉语语言习惯中却较为习惯使用Never mind.进行表达,这一词在英语中具有“不介意”的意思,如果交际中使用此词汇,则必然会造成交际对方的误解。
二、弥合英汉语言文化差异的方法
1.在语言应用过程中注意文化差异。使用英语进行交流,或者对英语文件进行翻译和理解,都必须重视其中的文化差异,只有在理解文化差异的基础上,很多细节性的交流问题才能被注意到,人们在交流过程中才较少出现误解和沟通障碍。在使用英语进行表达的过程中,应该注意使用的词汇、句子结构符合英语语言文化的定义,而不是按照汉语语言的语法和词汇,逐一翻译过去。例如,英语表达中的“定语从句”,对某个词汇进行解释说明的句子出现在词汇之后,而非中文的语法习惯,出现在词汇之前,或者单独进行描述。这就需要英语使用者加以注意,在表达过程中使用定语从句,要重视从句出现的位置,尽量避免表达错误,引起歧义。
2.进行中西方文化交流。语言是文化的一种表述形式,不了解英美文化,不熟悉英美人民的习俗,就不可能运用英语进行成功地交际。反过来,越深刻细致地了解所学语言国家的历史、文化、传统、风俗习惯、生活方式以及生活细节,就越能正确地理解和准确地使用语言。这也说明,对英语国家文化的了解有助于我们更好地应用英语进行表达和交流。而同样,英语国家的国民,也需要在了解中国文化的基础上,才能够完全理解交流的真正意图。进行中西方文化交流是弥合语言文化差异的最根本方式,除了举办和参与大型的文化交流展会之外,个人英语学习者也可以采用网络信息沟通工具,与国外友人实际交流,这也是进行中西方文化交流的一种方式。
3.以语言文化为单位进行特殊训练。了解英语国家语言文化,不是一朝一夕就可以完成的,也不是简单的几次交流就能够实现的。对于英语学习者来说,要深入地了解英语国家的文化,就应该以此为学习目标,进行单元式的训练。例如,选择具有代表性的书籍进行对照阅读,观看英剧、美剧,体会其中的语言文化表达的方法,都是能够帮助我们进行语用学方面提高的方式。
三、结语
综上所述,英汉语言文化差异存在于 语言交流的各个方面,文化差异无法弥合,就会产生各种交流问题。英语学习者和应用者,应从语言发展的根源入手,了解英语国家文化,参与文化交流,在使用英语过程中重视细节,只有这样,语言文化的差异才能逐渐减少,英语语言应用的有效性才能提高。
参考文献:
Abstract:Proverbs,whichderivefromlifearethecondensationandembodimentofthelanguageandcultureofanation.Theycanreflectgeography,history,customsofanation.Soitisnecessarytostudyanation''''sproverbswhenwetrytostudyitsculture.EnglishandChineseproverbs,bEingtreasuresoftwodifferentlanguages,seedistinctdifferencesresultedfromculturaldifferences.ThisessayusessometypicalexamplestocompareandanalyzethedifferencesbetweenEnglishandChineseproverbsfromthepointoforigin,geographicalenvironment,customs,religiousbeliefsandhistoricalculture,etc.ProverbsaredifficulttotranslatebecauseofthEIrdistinctivecharacteristicsandtheiruniqueculturalbackgrounds.Inordertopresentanadequatetranslationofaproverb,wecanusefourtranslationmethodsflexibly:literaltranslation,freetranslation,equivalenttranslationandliteraltranslationcombinedwithfreetranslation.
Keywords:EnglishandChineseproverbs;culture;culturaldifferences;translationprinciples;translationmethods
一、英汉谚语中所反映的文化差异
英国文化人类学家爱德华·泰勒在《原始文化》(1871)一书中,首次把文化作为一个概念提了出来,并表述为:“文化包括知识、信仰、艺术、道德、法律、风俗以及其作为社会上习得的能力与习惯。”[5]可见文化的覆盖面很广。谚语作为文化的一个组成部分,反映一个民族丰富多彩的文化现象。英汉谚语所反映的文化差异主要表现在以下几个方面:
(一)、起源差异
首先,英汉谚语都受到宗教思想的影响,但同中又有异。英谚受基督教的影响,反映了基督教的伦理道德和行为规范,如:Norespecterofpersons.(一视同仁);Manpropose,Goddisposes.(谋事在人,成事在天)等,而汉谚则受到“儒”、“释”、“道”三教的影响,如:“养儿防老,积谷防饥”是儒家的思想;“不看僧面看佛面”是佛教的思想;“饶人不是痴,过后讨便宜”是道家的思想。
其次,英汉谚语的起源差别还是很大的。英谚中有大量出自典章及名人的作品中那些脍炙人口的词句,如:Neversaydie.(永远不要说“死定了”)出自英国小说狄更斯的《匹克威克外传》;而汉语文史学家们则认为汉谚相当一部分出自社会生活和生产实践,如:“远亲不如近邻”是对日常生活经验的总结。
除此之外,英谚中有许多来自拉丁文、法文等的外来语,有些甚至保留了原文,如:Cherchezlafemme.(找出祸水)这是一句保留在英文中而以法语原文形式出现的谚语;而汉谚吸收了大量少数民族谚语,如:“劣行过四十年仍会败露”来自维吾尔族谚语;英谚中有许多来自寓言故事、神话传说,如:Loveisblind.(爱情是盲目的)来自罗马神话,而汉谚中有大量农谚,如“宁在时前,不在时后”。[6]
(二)、地理环境的差异
谚语的产生与人们的生活密切相关。英国是一个四面环海的岛国,英吉利海峡是欧洲许多国家通向大西洋的唯—出口,也是世界上最繁忙的海上要道之一。因此英国历史上航海业曾一度领先于世界,这对英谚的形成有很大的影响。英语中就有许多与航海有关的谚语,如:totakethewindoutofone’ssail(先发制人,抢占上风),togowiththestream/tide(随波逐流、顺应时势),tobeallatsea(不知所措)。英国独特的地理环境使捕鱼业在其经济中占有相当重要的地位,这也为英语留下了大量与渔业有关的谚语,如:hook(land)one''''sfish(如愿以偿,用诡计得到想要的东西),haveotherfishtofry(有其他鱼要煎——有其他事要做),playafish(让上钩的鱼不停地拖动钩线而致疲乏)等。而中国是一个内陆国家,千百年来以农业为主,人与土地有着不可分割的联系。因此汉语中就有许多与河流、土地和农业有关的谚语如:一帆风顺、过河拆桥、隔岸观火、拔苗助长、五谷丰登、瓜熟蒂落、春华秋实、根深蒂固、沧海桑田等。[7]
(三)、习俗差异
英汉习俗差异是英汉文化差异的一个重要方面,最典型的莫过于在对狗的态度上。狗在汉语中是一种卑微的动物。汉语中与狗有关的词语大都含有贬意:狐朋狗党、狗急跳墙、狼心狗肺、狗腿子等。尽管近年来养庞物狗的人数大大增加,狗的地位似乎有所改变,但狗的贬义形象却深深地留在汉语言文化中。而在西方英语国家,狗被认为是人类最忠诚的朋友,所以西方人不吃狗肉。英语中有关狗的谚语除了一部分因受其他语言的影响而含有贬义外,大部分都有褒义。在英语谚语中,常以狗的形象来比喻人的行为,如:Everydoghashisday.(人皆有出头日);Loveme,lovemydog.(爱屋及乌)等。与此相反,中国人十分喜爱猫,用猫比喻人,常有亲呢的成份,如:Acathasninelives.(吉人自有天相),而在西方文化中,猫被用来比喻心地恶毒的女人,如:Catshidetheirclaws.(知人知面不知心)。[8]以狐狸为形象时,汉语强调狐狸尾巴露出破绽。如:Thetaildoesoftencatchthefox.(常凭尾巴抓到狐狸),而英语强调狐狸花招多,难对付,如:Whenthefoxpreaches,thenbewareyourgeese.(遇上狐狸说教,当心鸡鹅被盗)。汉语认为失去马也无妨,说不定会带来好运,如:塞翁失马,焉知非福,而在英语里认为马不可失,如:Betterlosethesaddlethanthehorse.(宁可丢鞍,不可失马)。
(四)、方面
是人们精神活动的一个方面,对民族文化有一定的影响。与有关的谚语也大量地出现在英汉语言中。佛教传入中国已有一千多年的历史,人们相信有佛祖在左右着人世间的一切,因此汉语中有许多含“佛”、“庙”等的谚语,如“借花献佛”、“无事不登三宝殿”;[9]汉语反映道教思想的谚语有“福兮祸所伏,祸兮福所倚”、“乐极生悲”等。以孔子为祖师的儒家学派在思想意识上也占有重要位置,儒家思想在汉语谚语体系中留下了宝贵的财富,如:“严于律己,宽以待人”、“恭敬不如从命”;有关幸福的谚语如:“平安就是福”、“身在福中不知福”;还有像“天下兴亡,匹夫有责”、“谁言寸草心,报得三春晖”等提倡伦理教化和道德修养的谚语。在西方许多国家,特别是在英美,人们信奉基督教,在基督教中,上帝是唯一的、至高无上的神。因此在宗教生活及其活动中产生了许多带有浓厚的宗教色彩的英语谚语,如:Naturedoesnothinginvain.(造物主无所不能);Godhelpsthosewhohelpthemselves.(上帝帮助自助的人);[10]Intherightchurch,butinthewrongpew.(进对了教堂,但坐错了椅子)比喻“总的来说是对的,但细节上不对”。[11]
(五)、历史典故
英汉两种语言中还有大量由历史典故形成的谚语,在中国典籍中,谚语多半出现在诗书、传说、诸子论著中,这些谚语结构简单,意义深远,对人很有警策和教育意义。如“名落孙山”、“叶公好龙”等都来自历史典故。《诗经》中的“他山之石,可以攻玉”;《论语》中名句有“学而时习之,不亦乐乎?”、“有朋自远方来,不亦悦乎?”等。而英语典故谚语的来源主要有以下几个方面。一是来自《圣经》的谚语,如:WeareallAdam’schildren(我们都是亚当的子孙);二是来自希腊罗马神话的谚语,如:Pandora’sbox(潘多拉之盒—灾难、麻烦、祸害的根源)。三是来自《伊索寓言》,如:adoginthemanger(狗占马槽,占着茅坑不拉屎)。[12]四是由莎士比亚等文学大师的作品中来,如:Brevityisthesoulofwit.(简洁是智慧的灵魂)。[13]当然,英语谚语的来源不是单一的英国文献,而是多种来源,除以上提到的外,还有来自西欧各语言的谚语。例如,俄国作家列夫·托尔斯泰在《安娜·卡列尼那》一书中写的:Allhappyfamiliesresembleoneanother,everyunhappyfamilyisunhappyinitsownway.(幸福的家庭彼此相似,不幸的家庭各有其不幸)。来自法语的谚语有:Don’tputthecartbeforethehorse.(不要本末倒置)等。
二、英语谚语翻译的具体原则和方法
语言是文化的表现形式。在一定程度上,汉谚反映汉族的文化特点,英谚反映了英语民族的文化特点。因此,翻译谚语时,仅以语言之间词汇的同义性(等价性)为前提,寻求对等是不够的。奈达(Nida)指出:“所有的翻译,不管它是诗歌还是散文,都必须关心接受者的反应;因此,翻译的最终目的,从它对观众产生的效果而看,是评价任何翻译的最基本的因素。”所以,在把英谚翻译成汉语时,译者须多运用汉语的表现手段,力求能再现英语谚语的语言风格和丰富内涵。只有多注意英谚字面以外所特有的语言内涵,才能使译文讽喻得当,宜于说理,又不失原来谚语所具有的语言形象。
关于翻译标准,中外翻译理论家们提出了不同的主张,从严复的“信、达、雅”,傅雷的“重神似不重形似”,到张培基先生提出的“忠实通顺”到美国著名的翻译理论家EugeneA·Nida(奈达)的“功能对等(functionalequivalence)”或“动态对等(dynamicequivalence)”。这些主张虽然侧重点有所不同,但中心都是译文要忠实准确地表达原文的意义,保持原作的风格。所谓忠实表达原文的意义,指忠实表达原文的字面意义、形象意义和隐含意义三个方面。但是,并不是原文的每句话、每个词汇都同时具备三种意义,尤其是,任何两处语言文化都不可能完全相同,要把原文中的三种意义全部再现于译文常常是不可能的。如果字面意义或形象意义与隐含意义在翻译时由于文化的差异出现矛盾,字面意义或形象意义应当服从隐含意义。其次,原文的形象意义在目的语中可能会找不到对应—或者没有相同的形象,或者虽然形象相同,隐含意义却冲突,这时首先要考虑的是隐含意义的准确表达,可更换另一个译文作者熟悉的形象,或者舍弃形象意义,只译出隐含意义。总之,隐含意义,也就是原文意欲表达的意义是最重要的。[14]例如:EastisEast,andWestisWest.如果按字面意思译成“东就是东,西就是西”就不能完全表达该句的隐含意义,而译成“东方毕竟是东方,西方毕竟就是西方”能反映出作者对东西方差异的感叹。[15]
在翻译方法上,如果采用直译能准确表达原文意思应尽可能采用直译;如果直译不能再现原来谚语的丰富内涵,就可采用意译、对等翻译、直译和意译相结合等翻译方法,这样才能较完整地保留原文的神韵,使译文形象生动。
下面简单介绍一下英语谚语的翻译方法:
(一)、直译法
所谓直译法就是指在不违背译文语言规范以及不引起错误联想的条件下,在译文中保留英语谚语的比喻形象和民族、地方色彩的方法。采用直译的谚语多半是英语和汉语在谚语的比喻和形象方面基本相同的部分,或者是直译后一目了然,不至于产生误解的。[16]如:Pacticemakesperfect(熟能生巧);Wallshaveears(隔墙有耳);New-borncalvesmakelittleoftigers(初生牛犊不怕虎);Afireoncitywallbringsdisastertothefishinthemoat(城门失火,殃及池鱼)。[17]
(二)、意译法
有些英谚的表达方式因含有英语语言国家所特有的历史典故或文化背景,如果直译,则译文可能会牵强附会,也不易为中国读者所理解。因此在通常情况下舍弃原语的表达形式,采用意译,则可避免在某些情况下因直译而引起的拖泥带水,造成误解等弊病。例如,Achilles’sheel若直译为“阿克勒斯的脚后跟”并不能让大多数人理解,而译出它的隐含意义“唯一致命弱点”更恰当。[18]这样的例子还有:
1)Infairweatherprepareforthefoul.如译成“晴天要防阴天”,不如译成“有备无患”或“居安思危”或“未雨绸缪”。
2)Murderwillout.如译成“谋杀终必败露”,不如译成“纸包不住火”。
3)WhenGreekmeetsGreek,thencomesthetugofwar.如译成“希腊人相遇希腊人,定有一场好斗”,不如译为“两雄相争,其斗必烈”。
4)Everymanhasafoolinhissleeve.如译成“人人袖子里都装着个傻瓜”,不如译为“人人都有糊涂的时候”。[19]
(三)、对等翻译
谚语是群众长期以来对社会现象和自然现象的规律以及生产生活经验的科学总结。英美国家人民和中国人民之间存在相似的经验和阅历,对世界的认识在不少方面也是相似的,这使两个民族的谚语具有很大的相似性。有些英语谚语和汉语谚语在内容上不谋而合,具有相同的内涵,运用或大体相同的形象,或大体相同的比喻和修辞来阐述相同的道理,在这种情况下,运用同义的汉语谚语来翻译英语谚语“一方面可使译文更加通顺,另一方面更容易为译文读者理解和接受。”(冯庆华,1995:144)如:
1)Diamondcutdiamond(棋逢对手);
2)Twocanplaythegame(孤掌难鸣);
3)Tofishintroubledwaters(浑水摸鱼);
4)Likefather,likeson(有其父必有其子)。[20]
(四)、直译和意译的结合
有时在翻译一些英语谚语时,单纯的直译使读者不能理解其含义,而意译也不能确切地表达原来谚语的含义。这时可采用直译、意译相结合的方法进行翻译,以弥补直译难达意,意译难传神的不足。译文可直译其字面意义,再点出隐含意义,使译文形象生动,以期收到画龙点睛的效果。[21]例如:
1)Cutyourcoataccordingtoyourcloth(量布裁衣,量入为出);
2)EvenHomersometimesnods(荷马也有瞌睡时,智者千虑,必有一失);
二、风俗习惯差异,造成词汇的涵义不同
风俗习惯的不同,使人们对于同一词汇的使用方法不同。中国是一个崇尚儒家文化的国家,尊老爱幼是一个人的基本品德。在生活中,我们习惯有老奶奶、老爷爷、老太太这样的称呼,老字在中国意味着受人尊敬。而在英美国家则不同,在他们的观点中,“old”意味着他们没有价值了,没有生存的意义了。在进行英汉翻译时,需要对“old”进行合理转换,翻译为令以尊敬的即可。另外,在中国的日常交流中,人们经常会提出工作、年龄、收入、婚姻等问题,大家乐于谈论这些,来增加彼此之间的熟悉度。而在英美国国家,这些都属于个人隐私,如果你询问,就说明你没有礼貌。这就提醒我们每一位英汉翻译者,需要认识到英汉语言中所暗藏的思维与风俗问题,尊重不同国家之间的风俗习惯,将翻译工作做准做精。
三、地域环境差异,造成词汇的涵义不同
语言是文化的载体,是反映民族文化的一面镜子。因此,掌握一门语言实际上就是掌握语言所承载的文化。词汇是构成语言的最基本也是最活跃的要素,常常是最敏感的反映了社会生活和社会思想的变化,折射出各民族的文化心理。英语和汉语中有许多文化内涵丰富的词汇,有时其本义相同,但在不同的文化背景下,引申意义即文化内涵却相差很大。在人类历史的发展进程中,动物一直与人类保持着密切的联系。这种亲密无间的关系使得人类对动物产生各种各样错综复杂的情感,如崇拜、喜欢、厌恶、恐惧等情绪。在英汉两种文化中存在着许许多多与动物相关的词汇以及大量以动物为喻体的比喻性短语。由于中英文化的差异,人们对同一种动物赋予不同的文化内涵和寓意,从而形成不同的联想意义。
通过对同一动物在英汉两种语言中可能出现的内涵相同或相异的研究,可以透析出文化对词汇的影响,揭示中英两种文化间的差异,同时会有助于英语学习者更好地进行跨文化交际。
学习动物词汇的内涵,有助于我们了解中西方的语言文化差异,以此来避免在文化交流中产生误解。对于一个英语学习者来说,充分了解本国语言和外国语言是学习语言的有效途径。动物词汇在英汉语中有时是相对应的,但是大多时候蕴涵不同的文化信息。下面从传统文化差异、审美价值取向两方面分析英汉同一动物词的文化内涵差异。
一、谚语概述
谚语是民间集体创造、广为口传、言简意赅并较为定型的艺术语句,是民众丰富智慧和普遍经验的规律性总结。《牛津高阶英汉双解词典》对“谚语”的定义是:能够给予建议或说明普遍真理的一种广为人知的短语或句子。武占坤、马国凡合著的《谚语》从谚语的性质出发,把“谚语”定义为:“谚语是通俗简练、生动活泼的韵语和流传,是人民群众表现实际生活经验和感受的一种现成话。”
二、英汉谚语的文化差异
谚语蕴含着丰富的文化内涵,The genius,wit,and spirit of a nation are discovered in its proverbs.(一个国家的天赋、智慧和精神在谚语中表露无遗。)人们长期置身于某种不同的社会文化环境中,受该文化影响,逐渐形成某种固定的审美方式和审美角度,这些都会在谚语中得到体现。
(一)地域文化
地理环境的差异,使各民族的谚语均体现出地域特色。英国四面环海,其海岸线漫长而曲折。英国人民喜爱海洋,他们的生活和斗争与海洋、水运业关系密切,历史上航海业曾一度领先世界,因此,其很多谚语取材自海洋。例如:
A life without a purpose is a ship without a rudder.(人生无目标,犹如船无舵。)
A smooth sea never made a skillful mariner.(平静的海洋训练不出熟练的水手。)
Any port in a storm.(船遇风暴不挑港。)
There are more other fish in the sea.(海里还有很多别的鱼;还有很多其他的机会。)
Never offer to teach fish to swim.(不要教鱼游泳。)
Give your own fish-guts to your own sea-maws.(各人自扫门前雪,莫管他人瓦上霜。)
中国虽然也有很长的海岸线,但中华文明却是发源于内陆,海对于很多人而言都是神秘的象征。以海洋为题材的谚语很多,但常偏重于海洋的浩瀚无边,以教育劝诫人们。例如:
海阔凭鱼跃,天高任鸟飞。
海纳百川,有容乃大。
书山有路勤为径,学海无涯苦作舟。
特定的地理环境造就了特定的文化,衍生出特定的谚语表达方式。中华民族大都生活在亚洲大陆,自然关注的多是内陆的名山胜水。例如:
桂林山水甲天下,阳朔山水甲桂林。
五岳归来不看山,黄山归来不看岳。
长江后浪推前浪,一代新人赶旧人。
不到黄河不死心。
我国自古以来是农业大国,因此,汉语中有很多以农业为题材的谚语。它记录了农作物生长发育的特征和农业技术措施,是劳动人民在长期生产实践中经验的结晶。例如:
燕子低飞蛇过道,大风大雨就来到。
庄稼一枝花,全靠粪当家。
七九河开,八九燕来,九九加一九,耕牛满地走。
英国属海洋性气候,东风是从欧洲大陆吹过去的寒风,西风则是从大西洋吹过去的温暖、湿润的风。因此,预示春天来临的是西风,英国诗人雪莱的《西风颂》就是对春的讴歌:
If winter comes,can spring be far be hehind?(冬天来了,春天还会远吗?)
When the wind is in the east,it’s neither good for man or beast.(风气东方,人畜不安。)
When the wind is in the west,the weather’s at the best.(风气西方,气候最佳。)
而由于地理位置的差异,来自太平洋温暖的东风吹至我国大陆,在汉语里东风即春风,如唐朝诗人唐彦谦《春草》中所描绘的那样:“萋萋总是无情物,吹绿东风又一年。”韩《寒食》中有:“春城无处不飞花,寒食东风御柳斜。”
与英国相反,我国的西风来自寒冷的西伯利亚,秋风起,寒风瑟瑟、满目萧条。如晏殊《蝶恋花》中有:“昨夜西风凋碧树。”马致远《天净沙・秋思》中有:“古道西风瘦马。夕阳西下,断肠人在天涯。”
(二)民族心理及价值观念
正如谚语“So many countries,so many customs.(各国风俗,各有不同。)”所言,由于分处亚欧两大洲,遥远的距离造成中英两国的民族心理、风俗习惯迥异,对相同事物的认识与好恶差别很大。这种差异,在其谚语中会得到某种形式的反映和承袭,再现各民族文化的情调和趣味。
以动物为喻体的谚语能很好地说明两个民族的文化特点,不同国家的人民对一些动物的感彩和认识不尽相同,有的甚至大相径庭。以对狗的态度为例,自古以来,中国人都视狗为畜生,都有一种厌恶之情。现在,随着养宠物在我国的升温,狗在中国人家中的地位有所上升,但人们对狗的看法依然没变。这是中国几千年积淀下来的结晶,大量的谚语中都充满了对狗的不满。如:
狗仗人势。
狗嘴里吐不出象牙。
狗眼看人低。
狗拿耗子,多管闲事。
而对西方人而言,狗既可看门、打猎,又可视作人类的宠物、朋友。因此,他们对狗有种爱怜情感。英国人爱狗,在英文句子中,英国人都用“she”或“he”而很少用“it”指代。所以,英语中有关狗的谚语大多不含贬义。如:
You are a lucky dog.(你是一个幸运儿。)
Every dog has his day.(凡人皆有得意时。)
My boss is a jolly dog.(我的老板是个风趣的家伙。)
David works like a dog.(大卫工作真卖劲。)
除动物之外,还有含水果、蔬菜的中外谚语,如汉语里“冬吃萝卜夏吃姜,不劳医生开药方”讲的是这两种蔬菜对健康的好处。因为在我国萝卜和姜是非常普遍的蔬菜,被运用到谚语里则恰当地表明了其对人身体的益处。而在英国人眼中,这两种东西并不能表达这种意思。要传达出同样的涵义,英国人用另外不同的物品――苹果,An apple a day keeps the doctor away.(一天一个苹果身体好。)因为在英国,苹果才是最普遍的食物,吃苹果会令你永葆健康。又如:When the apple is ripe it will fall.(苹果成熟,自然会落下/瓜熟蒂落。)
(三)宗教文化
宗教是人类社会发展到一定历史阶段出现的一种文化现象,属于社会意识形态。西方英语国家多信奉基督教。基督教在其悠久的发展过程中已超出了狭隘的宗教定义,形成了一种对西方人的生活方式、价值观念和伦理原则产生巨大影响的文化现象。因此,英语里有许多与基督教有关的谚语。
在基督教的影响下,God,devil,evil,heaven和cross等概念和词语可以说家喻户晓。它们表现了人们的爱憎,展现出独具特色的宗教文化并在英语中留下了浓重的痕迹。如:
Man proposes,God disposes.(谋事在人,成事在天。)
He that serves God for money will serve the devil for better wages.(为金钱替上帝效劳的人,为更多的钱也愿被魔鬼驱使。)
Hell is wherever heaven is not.(不是天堂的地方,即是地狱。)
The devil lurks behind the cross.(魔鬼躲在十字架后面。)
《圣经》是犹太人和英美等西方基督教国家的一部圣书(The Great Book),它蕴含了丰富的宗教和文化,内容博大精深,形成了独具特色的圣经文化。在英语谚语中,有不少来源于《圣经》。谚语“Every heart has its own ache.(各人有各人的苦衷)”就是来源于《圣经・旧约・箴言》中的“Every heart knows his own bitterness.”一句。再如,谚语“Forbidden fruit is sweet.(禁果分外甜)”语出《圣经・创世纪》关于夏娃(Eve)在伊甸园偷吃智慧果(即禁果),惹恼上帝耶和华的故事。再如:
Gossiping and lying go hand in hand.(爱说长道短的,必然会撒谎。)
The price of wisdom is above rubies.(才智胜于珠宝。)
A good name is rather to be chosen than great riches.(宁要美名,不要巨富。)
我国信仰佛教、道教、儒教。佛教传入中国已有一千多年的历史,人们相信有佛在左右着人世间的一切,其基本教义是生死轮回、因果报应。如:
平时不烧香,临时报佛脚。
家家有本难念的经。
跑了和尚跑不了庙。
道教是我国土生土长的宗教,其教义就是以道或道德为核心,认为天地万物都由道而派生,社会人生都应法道而行,最后回归自然。因此,像“鬼”、“道”、“仙”等与道教文化密切相关的词语常出现于谚语中。如:
八仙过海,各显神通。
道高一尺,魔高一丈。
龙王庙里水多,城隍庙里鬼多。
儒家学说记录了孔子等先辈的言行,反映了他们的政治主张、伦理思想、道德观念及教育思想,是中国人修身治国的珍贵文献,是中华民族宝贵的精神财富。如:
逝者如斯夫!不舍昼夜。
人无远虑必有近忧。
道听而途说,德之弃也!
(四)历史文化
谚语深深扎根于语言使用者的认知环境中,不同民族语言中的谚语常隐含着不同的文化内涵。因此,了解其历史背景,对于正确把握谚语的意义显得尤为重要。
英语典故谚语大都来自《圣经》和古希腊罗马神话及西方经典著作。基督教教典《圣经》是西方文化的重要源头,有许多谚语出自圣经故事或反映宗教思想,体现了基督教的博爱精神和共同人性。如:
A good name is better than riches.(美名胜过财富。)
The price of wisdom is above rubies.(智慧的价值高于珠宝。)
The love of money is the root of all evil.(贪财是万恶之源。)
Forbidden fruit is sweet.(禁果是甜的。)
古希腊罗马神话是西方文学的重要源泉,自文艺复兴以来,许多文学家、艺术家不断从神话中汲取营养。因此,英语中有许多谚语涉及古希腊罗马神话。如:
The tortoise wins the race while the hare is sleeping.(兔子睡大觉,乌龟才得胜。)
The grass is often greener on the other side of fence.(邻岸芳草绿。)
Don’t kill the goose that laid the golden eggs.(不要杀死下金蛋的鹅。)
莎士比亚的戏剧真实地反映了英国社会现实,其作品之多、之精令其他作家望其项背,成了产生谚语的沃土。如:
Lend your money and lose your friend.(借出你的钱,失掉你的朋友。)
Have is have.(到手的东西才算数。)
It is a wise father that knows his own child.(聪明的父亲才了解自己的孩子。)
来自其他英语诗歌、戏剧、小说、散文的谚语。如:
The child is father of the man.(三岁看老。――英国诗人华兹华斯,My Heart Leaps Up)
Never say die.(永不言败。――英国作家狄更斯,Pickwick Papers)
He that hath wife and children hath given hostage to fortune.(有妻室子女之人已将自己押给了命运――英国哲学家培根)
来自西欧各语言或涉及历史人物的谚语极大地丰富了英语语言。如俄国作家托尔斯泰在《安娜・卡列尼娜》一书中写的:All happy families resemble one another,every unhappy family is unhappy in its own way.(幸福的家庭彼此相似,不幸的家庭各有不幸。)来自法语的谚语有: Don’t put the cart before the horse.(不要本末倒置。)再如:
Familiar paths and old friends are the best.( 熟路易走,老友易处。――源自德语)
Give a helping hand to a man in trouble.(对危难者应授之以手。――源自拉丁语)
Napoleon himself was once a crying baby.(即使是拿破仑,也曾经是哭哭啼啼的婴儿。)
而在中国,悠久的历史长河中积淀了许多独具中国特色的谚语,它们在人类文学史上如繁星闪烁、耀眼璀璨,体现了中国人的智慧。古代神话、传说、寓言、历史故事等,皆为汉语谚语提供了丰富的素材。这些谚语结构简单,意义深远,对人颇有警示和教育意义。如:
成也萧何,败也萧何。
听君一席话,胜读十年书。
近水楼台先得月,向阳花木早逢春。
亡羊补牢,为时未晚。
关公面前耍大刀。
塞翁失马,焉知非福。
三、结语
作为人民生活经验结晶的谚语,它是人类智慧的闪光,包含特定的文化色彩。它不仅是一个民族生产经验和生活准则的概括,是民族心理、价值观念和思想的总结,还是该民族历史人物、事件、神话传说和风土民情的记载。它发挥着启迪人生、传授经验、进行道德教育等社会功用。正如“The wisdom of nations lies in their proverbs,which are brief and pithy.(国家的智慧寓于谚语,它们精辟而简练。)”所述,谚语像一颗明珠,在人类文化宝库中绽放异彩。
参考文献:
[1]霍恩比.牛津高阶英汉双解词典(第七版)[M].北京:商务印书馆,2009.
[2]翰余.常用英语谚语[M].南昌:江西人民出版社,1982.
[3]郑家顺.英语谚语5000条[M].南京:东南大学出版社,2009.
[4]武占坤,马国凡.谚语[M].内蒙古:内蒙古人民出版社,1980.
[5]杨自俭.英汉语比较与翻译[M].上海:上海外语教育出版社,2002.
[6]胡文仲.文化与交际[M].北京:外语教学与研究出版社,1994.
前言
语言和文化是相互影响的,每一种语言的产生都有它所在的文化背景,都包含着一种独特的世界观,也就是说每一种语言现象的背后都承载着这个民族的生活方式、思维特点、伦理道德和社会风尚。在对汉语和英语语言的研究中,最为明显的是英汉交际用语中的称谓语。在对比英汉称谓语方面,亲属称谓语、社会称谓语这些方面都存着迥异差异。是因为宗法制度、伦理道德和价值观三个个方面的不同,才产生了如此的大的称谓语差别。最后,深入了解中西方文化差异的同时,应注意在跨文化交流中的语言规则,提高交际能力。
一、亲属称谓语比较
中国人的亲属之间称谓非常复杂,而英语国家的人们的亲属称呼要简单的多,比如,英语中“uncle”一词相当于汉语中的“伯父”(父亲的哥哥)、“叔父”(父亲的弟弟)、“舅父”(母亲的兄弟)、“姨父”(母亲的姐妹的丈夫)、“姑父”(父亲的姐妹的丈夫)。中国人复杂的亲属关系,英语国家仅仅用几个词就代替了全部,可见这其中的差异巨大。
而在中国人的日常交往中,人们往往比照亲属之间的年龄、辈分的特点,借用亲属称谓语来称呼,来拉近彼此关系,适用于朋友或者熟人之间。例如,遇到父母的朋友或者同事,可以称呼“叔叔、阿姨”,甚至是“妈妈”等等,同时可以在称谓前面加上此人的姓;遇到年纪大又不熟悉的中老年人,可以称呼“大爷、大妈、大婶、大叔”等等;遇到年纪比自己稍微大一点的,可以称呼“大哥、大姐”。英语中并没有这样的情况,本来英语的亲属称谓语就很少,而且在西方人眼里,人都是平等的,亲戚和朋友没有区别,有时候直呼其名,通常也是在姓氏前面加上“Mr、Mrs、Miss”之类的,当然也就不会出现“拟亲属称谓”这个概念了。英美国家的人来到中国接触到了这个概念,会感到奇怪,认为中国人乱认亲戚;而中国人看来,西方人这种相互称呼的方式似乎是不礼貌的。
二、社会称谓语比较
社会称谓语是人们在社会交际活动中所用于称呼的用语。主要有尊称、谦称、职业/职位/职务称谓语等等。(1)现代汉语词汇丰富,因此对于尊称也有众多的类型。用“您”代替“你”广泛运用于各个方面。其次,在“老”或者“小”后加上姓氏。一般用于称呼比自己年长或年幼的人,或者上下级之间也可这样运用。而在现代英语里并没有称呼的地位高低之分,“你”不管年龄大小都用“You”,只有在古英语里才出现了类似“您”的“Thou”,而现在也已经消亡了。英语的尊称虽然没有汉语繁琐,但是在男女不同的称谓语方面,对待不知道是否结婚的女性,用“Ms.”以表尊重;称呼已婚女性用“Mrs.”;称呼未婚女性用“Miss.”。而男性则用“Mr.”来称呼,这样的称谓语就比直接称名道姓要更加正式,也显得庄重。(2)谦称,是称谓语中用于表达自己的恭谦之情的词语,与尊称相对。中国人在与人交往的时候对对方经常使用尊称,而故意“贬低”自己以达到恭谦的效果。西方人追求在人际交往中非常注重人人平等和个人的价值,因此在英语中只有极少数的词语表示恭谦的意思,而且也只出现在书面语中。比如,英语书信最后落款的时候,可以用“Your sincerely”、“Respectfully yours”等等。因此外国人常常不懂得中国人的“抛砖引玉”,往往以为是真的“不行”。中国人和西方人交流时,也往往会觉得他们自大,不懂得谦虚之类的。究其原因,还是英汉谦称的差异决定的。(3)中英社会中,一些职业、职务、职衔的称谓是相同的,但是在数量上,汉语的这类称谓语要比英语的复杂的多,也是由于中国社会环境所造成的。汉语社会中,大多数职业的名称都能用作称谓语。例如,学生称呼老师可以说“王老师”;同事之间可以称呼某人为“朱会计”等。英语和汉语不同,大多数职业身份是不同称谓语的,比如学生称呼老师可以直接叫姓名,而且英语里并不是用“姓氏+职务”来称呼的。在西方,只有一些很重要的职业或者学历高的人,再者就是政府皇族人员可以用于称呼,比如,Doctor.(医生)可以称为“Dr.Lee”;Professor.(博士)可以称为“Prof.Green”。
三、英汉称谓语所折射的中西方文化差异
由上述的比较分析可以看出,英汉亲属称谓语和社会称谓语在数量、类型和形式上都存在着明显的差异。不同语言的差异的形成原因归根结底还要探究不同民族的文化差异,称谓语的不同,强烈反映出了中西方文化在宗法制度、伦理道德观念和价值观等方面的不同。
中国古代有一种全民族所共有的制度形式,其中最为典型的就是“宗法制”。这样,血缘、等级、尊卑这样的字眼就贯穿了整个古代中国。再者,汉语里的尊称和谦称也是由于古代专制制度过分强调等级观念,把人分为三六九等,才因此使人们在交往是特别注重使用敬语和谦称。西方国家历来都主张以“个人”为中心,与中国社会以“血缘”为中心的观念明显不同,这都是平等的一种表现。
英汉称谓语的差异引起了跨文化交际的问题,而价值观可以说是跨文化交际的核心,因此英语和汉语的称谓语的不同就折射出中西方价值观的差异。汉语称谓语复杂繁多,特别是亲属关系复杂,很大一部分体现出了中国人讲究礼仪,注重人际关系疏离,尊卑有序的精神风貌。西方文化的核心价值是个人主义,他们崇尚自由和平等,在人际交往中没有等级观念,人际间的权利与义务少,因此英语社会称谓形式简单,数量少。
小结
本文首先从语言和文化的关系出发,根据一定的语言反映一定的民族文化这前提,提出英语和汉语的称谓语存在着不同程度的差异。然后具体对比分析亲属称谓语、社会称谓语的差异,针对这样的不同,总结出称谓语的差异所折射的文化差异分为宗法制度观念、伦理道德观念和价值观三个方面。每一种语言都包含着一种独特的文化,对于英汉语言差异的文化研究还可以从其他方面来研究,比如中国人和英国人的招呼用语、非语言交际等等,这还有待于以后进一步研究。
参考文献:
[1]蔡希芹.中国称谓辞典[M].北京:北京语言学院出版社,1994年。
[2]刘润清、胡壮麟.语言文化差异的认识与超越[M].北京:外语教学与研究出版社,2000年.
一、引言
翻译不仅是一种跨语言的交际活动,更是一种跨文化的交际活动。语言和文化密不可分。它们相互影响,相互作用并且相互制约。语言是文化的产物,无论从语言的符号观还是社会观来看,其都带有明显的文化特征。语言的文化性集中表现在语言的文化属性、文化价值和文化功能等方面。作为语言内涵的文化,给予语言的影响是全方面的。集中表现在三个方面。(1)影响并制约语言系统(包括语音、词汇、语法等);(2)决定语言的指称内容与形式;(3)作用于人类的语言思维与表达形式。由此可见,作为文化载体的语言只有在特定的文化中才具有意义。正如美国翻译理论家奈达所说:“翻译是两种文化之间的交流。对于真正成功的翻译而言,熟悉两种文化甚至比掌握两种语言更重要。因为词语只有在其作用的文化背景中才有意义。”(1993:109)文化对语际交流的影响可见一斑。汉英民族在价值观念、、民情风俗、历史背景、地理条件、社会制度、生活经验等方面存在着巨大差异,这种文化上的差异不仅给各自的载体语言打上了深深的烙印,也为这两种语言之间互译带来了重重困难。本文拟从汉英语言之间的文化差异着手,企图以归化和异化策略来寻求其间的语义文化对等翻译。
二、汉英文化差异
因为语言基本上是一种文化和社会产品,要理解它就应该从文化和社会的角度去理解。,汉英两种语言之间的文化差异给其在语义层面上的转换带来了巨大的障碍。其差异首先表现为价值观念的不同。汉文化是一元文化,强调“社团价值论”;英文化是多元文化,崇尚“个人价值至上论”。除了价值观念差异之外,汉英文化差异还与两个民族所处的地理环境与社会环境、气候条件和风俗习惯等息息相关,。
(一)地理环境引起的文化差异
文化是有地域性的。特殊的地理环境和气候特征常常给该地区的文化打下烙印。中国和英国,因为地理环境的迥异,气候条件的巨差也就孕育出彼此相对的异域文化。英国是岛国,地处西半球,北温带,海洋性气候,其民族创造出的语言就沾上了该地理特征。象我们熟知的习语:spendmoneylikewater;makewater;allatsea等就囊括其中。相反,中华民族祖居亚洲大陆,其文化自然也难免受其影响。上文所说的“挥金如土”就是一例。另外还有“面如土色”、“土眉土眼”、“面朝黄土背朝天”等不胜枚举。至于气候不同招致的文化差异的例子也是举不胜数。单就“东风”“西风”之说来看,两种文化就大相径庭。雪莱的“西风颂”(OdetotheWestWind)正是对春的讴歌。CharlesDickens在《大卫科波菲尔》中说“HowmanywinterdayshaveIseenhim,standingblue—nosedinthesnowandeastwind!”这也是一个极好的例证。然而汉语中的“东风”却战胜了“西风”,是春风,是温暖的使者。“西风”是秋风,有萧瑟秋风之说。马致远之词作“古道、西风、瘦马”,又同是马曲的“醉乡中,东风唤醒梨花梦”也说明这一点。词曲中的意境也自是让异域人士费解。
(二)民情风俗造成的差异
汉英民族由习俗引起的文化差异在一些与动物有关的词汇短语上体现得非常明显。英国人喜欢马,养马、骑马、赛马成为其风俗,英国文化就属于典型的的“马文化”。所以英语中有关马的说法及其丰富。诸如:talkhorse(吹牛);getonone’shighhorse(趾高气扬);horseandhorse(并驾齐驱)等等。然而中国是传统的农业国,世代的牛耕生活使汉语囤积了大量的“牛文化”。牛是“吃苦耐劳,勤奋踏实”的象征。“俯首甘为孺子牛”就是体现的这种情结。相反在英语中却用马来代替。汉语中的“老黄牛”翻译成英语也就成了“awillinghorse”.不光如此,汉英语言中的一些表示颜色的词汇也沉淀了不同民情的文化。“红色”在汉语中含有极强的褒义色彩,“大红大紫”显示的是成功和富贵,喜庆和吉祥。与此相反,“red”却常常让西方人想起流血、战争、恐怖、愤怒和危险,含有较强的贬义。
三、翻译策略
汉英文化的差异性给两种语言之间的翻译带来了很大困难。但是,这并不是就说明两种语言之间就不能相互转化。语言共性论认为:虽然人类的语言存在着巨大的差异,但是由于在生存环境、身体结构、生理需要等方面的共同之处大于不同之处,这就使语言之间的转换成为可能。Chomsky的普遍语法理论也从另一个角度证明了语言之间转换的可能性。“如果说每种语言都能表达所指的一切,那么,从原则上说,某种语言所表达的一切都能被译为另一种语言(蔡毅)。不同语言之间的这种转换常常借助于翻译中的异化和归化策略。(一)异化翻译策略
异化就是不改变原文的文化、语言、文体等特征传达原文的内容,要求读者向作者靠拢,适应原文。它翻译的前提是,认为语言是有差异的,交际因语言社团之间与语言社团之内的文化差异而复杂化。异化翻译承认并发展差异,并且在目的语中表现文化差异。异化翻译追求最大限度的等值。其特点如下:(1)不完全遵循目的语的语言与语篇规范;(2)在适当的时候选择不通顺、艰涩难懂的文体;(3)有意保留源语中的实观材料或采用目的语中的古词语;(4)目的是为目的语读者提供一次“前所未有的阅读经验”。异化翻译有利于读者了解异域文化;有利于读者运用智力和想象力去感受衣鱼文化的独特之处;有利于丰富目的语文化和表达方式。但是,异化翻译也有自己的劣势,它常常使译文句式生硬,晦涩难懂,这就给读者的带来了阅读困难。常见的异化翻译策略有“音译法”和“直译法”等。
(二)归化翻译策略
归化翻译就是遵循目标语文化的当前价值,对原文进行同化翻译。该翻译法的最大特点就是采用地道畅通的目的语进行翻译,不同文化之间的差异被掩盖,目的语的主流文化价值观取代了译入语的文化价值观。归化翻译有其自身的优越性。对于译者来说,要全面了解一种异域文化基本上是不可能的,在翻译过程中因为对本族文化的亲切感和认同感,往往会采取归化的翻译策略以便使译文通顺。这样,对于读者来说,就可以避免文化冲突,在自己的知识文化范围轻松容易的理解译文。由此看来,归化翻译的通顺常常也会换来文化信息的遗失。常见的归化翻译策略有“代换法”、“解释法”和“异译法”等。
四、异化归化,各得其所
上面我们已经谈到异化和归化翻译各有其优缺点。过度的归化和异化都不可取。那么,在实际的翻译中我们应该采取什么标准呢?关于翻译的标准,清末的翻译家严复提出了著名的“译事三难”,即“信、达、雅”。“信”指忠实原文,“达”指语言通顺畅达,“雅”指文字古雅。鲁迅也说过:“凡是翻译,必须兼顾两面,一当然力求其易解,一则保持原作的风姿……”。钱中书提出了更具体的“化境”文学翻译标准。他说:“文学翻译的最高标准是“化”。把作品从一国文字转变成另一国文字,既不能因语文习惯的差异而显露出生硬牵强的痕迹,又能完全保存原作的风味,那就算入于“化境”。从这些翻译名家对翻译所定的标准可以看出,“忠实”和“通顺”是翻译过程中应该遵循的两项基本原则,缺一不可。那就是说,既要将原文的信息(包括语言信息和文化信息)全部传达,语气和风格与原文一致,又要使行文流畅自然,易于理解接受。这就要求我们能够找到异化和归化翻译的最佳结合点,让异化和归化更得其所。一般说来,从文化的角度来看,文化间的关系分为:文化交织、文化鸿沟、文化冲突三种。不同的文化关系对翻译的策略的选用有极大的影响。文化交织是指在不同的文化中,存在着一些相似和相同的地方。这样语言之间的交流因其共同性而不难理解。为了更多的接触异域文化,异化翻译方法就显示出优越性;文化鸿沟是指两种文化中存在着文化差距。这时我们可以选用归化翻译方法,如果选用异化翻译方法的话,就必须用直译加注才能做到理解和传递信息的两全其美;文化冲突是指两种文化对某些物质,事物和现象有完全矛盾的理解。处理这种文化现行,归化翻译方法更能大显神通。
参考文献:
关键词: 宗教 文化传统 差异
Key word: Religion Cultural tradition Difference
作者简介: 何志伦(1973-)男,四川乐山人,硕士研究生,讲师,从事语言教学学和应用语言学研究。
陈国红(1979―)女,四川自贡人,中学一级教师,主要从事中小学教学法研究。
一 、引言
一说到语言,人们就会不由自主地联想到文化。同样的,一说到文化,人们也会自然而然地把它和语言联系起来。那么,究竟什么是语言,什么是文化,它们之间的关系又是怎样的呢?对于语言的定义,一直以来就有很多种不同的说法,现在中国语言学界普遍认同的是:语言是人们用于交流的一套可以任意组合的声音符号系统。多年来,不断有学者对这些问题提出不同的看法,但是他们都毫无例外地认为语言和文化是相互影响,相互渗透的,尤其是几千年以来潜移默化宗教为等传统文化对各民族各国家丰富多彩的民族精神、文化内涵和对于言的不同理解有着深刻的影响。有鉴于此,人们又会产生另一个疑问,不同的文化内涵对英汉两种语言的内涵会有怎样的影响呢?
在此之前,已经有不少学者在这个领域做过一些研究并取得了很大的进展。如邓炎昌和刘润清在《语言与文化:英汉语言文化对比》一书中从多角度探讨了文化对语言的影响。本文将就这个方面进行详细的阐述,通过追溯东西方不同的宗教文化和哲学基础来探究汉语和英语中一些词汇在字源意义上的根本差别。
二、英汉文化传统和语言内涵差异比较分析
由于不同的传统文化和哲学基础,中国和西方各国对人际关系有不同的阐释。在中国,根据年龄和亲疏关系,对亲属有很多种不同的称谓,而且要对亲属分出姻亲和血亲。而在英语国家当中,亲属关系的称谓则要简单得多。比如说:Katherine’s brother married John’s sister. 这句话看似简单,但是要把它翻译成汉语却很让人头疼,因为翻译者需要考虑Katherine’s brother 究竟是比Katherine 大呢还是小(汉语里面大的叫哥哥,小的叫弟弟,概念和关系都是不一样的)。中国人亲属之间的称谓非常复杂,而且人们一听或一看就知道他们之间的亲属关系。比如中国人的表兄弟表姐妹实际上还要分姑表,舅表和姨表,内外侄女也同样要分姑侄,舅侄和姨侄。
中国人的人际关系非常复杂而且很重要,亲属关系和亲属称谓就更不用说了。而在西方国家,人们对人际关系看得并不是很重要,对于人与人之间的称谓也不重视,即使是年轻人称呼老年人都可以直呼其名,家庭成员和亲属之间也是如此,这在中国则被视为不礼貌。
要回答这个问题就必须先了解分别影响中国和西方几千年的儒、释、道传统和基督教传统。孔子是中国儒家思想的代表人物而且是开山祖师,他生活在中国古代的东周时期,当时的国王权力势弱,各诸侯国之间相互混战,人民生活困苦,传统的礼节不再被人们所遵守。孔子认为当时的混乱局面的根结就在于传统礼教的沦丧,于是他提出了一套以君、臣、父、子为主要内容的“正名”理论。所谓“正名”就是国君要像国君,臣子要像臣子,父亲要像父亲,儿子要像儿子,各种人都明白自己的等级和身份,什么样的人跟什么样的事情,决不做名分以外的事情,这样才能保证国泰民安。从以上内容可以看出家的观念或亲属关系被多次提到并运用于儒家理论当中。
基督教的创始人耶稣生活的年代是在罗马帝国。他当时用了两条戒律概括了《旧约全书》的所有戒律:一是“Love the Lord thy God. ”,二是“Love your neighbor as yourself.”基督教认为,在基督教这个大家庭里面,出了家长耶稣以外,其他所有人都是平等的,应该像兄弟姐妹那样互相帮助。
基督教很重视人们相互之间的距离或独立。 为什么基督教的教义会有这样的内容呢?这是因为在当时罗马帝国的统治下人民生活艰苦但是又无法摆脱当时残酷的现实,超自然的上帝耶稣则恰好能够是他们暂时摆脱现实的烦恼。于是乎,时间所有的伦理关系、人际关系都不重要了。
三、结论
综上所述,笔者认为源于古代的宗教和哲学思想文化传统对语言差异的形成和发展具有根本性的影响。中国的儒家思想和西方的基督教文化分别衍生出不同的人际关系观念和价值观念,而这些不同的文化和观念又在不同的语言内涵当中得以体现。本文所列举的例子只不过是语言中所隐藏的丰富的文化内涵里面的点滴而已,还有其他很多方式和角度可以对其他一些语言材料进行分析比较,比如英汉习语当中的动物,或者从其它层面比如句法结构,语篇语体等进行比较分析研究。通过本人对英汉两种语言的比较分析,希望能够对中国的英语学习者有一定的帮助,同时也尽请各位读者批评指正。
参考文献:
【1】 邓炎昌,刘润清.语言与文化[M].北京:外语教学与研究出版社,1989